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Agave            
We have over a dozen agave plants that have been outside since the first part of June. Recently, we began to notice that they had a foul, rotten odor and some of them have flopped over. Are they getting some sort of disease?
No, not a disease, but with all the rain we’ve had your plants have succumbed to root rot.  Putting them outside during the summer is fine but remember that they are a desert plant and they don’t want excess water. Try protecting them by placing the pots on a south facing porch if possible or under an overhang.
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Anise Hyssop
Is anise supposed to have purple flowers?  I purchased an anise plant this spring and the blooms were purple instead of white as pictured.
You have anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) instead of anise (Pimpinella anisum). Anise hyssop is a perennial that keeps on coming back in the strangest places. It grows to about three feet tall with a spread of about one foot, making it ideal for a container. The leaves have a wonderful licorice, or anise, scent. This plant not only attracts butterflies and bees but repels cabbage moths! The anise is a half hardy annual that needs a long summer. It grows about two feet high and wide. The flowers of Pimpinella are flat clusters of white that bloom in summer while hyssop produces purple spikes late in summer and into fall.
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Asiatic Dayflower
There is ‘weed’ growing under our rose bushes that looks somewhat like a houseplant with small, blue orchid-like flowers. It grows a couple of leaves then stem then more leaves. It roots where the stems hit the ground. Is it a plant that can be taken inside?
I think you are looking at an Asiatic dayflower (Commelina communis). If you look carefully, you will see that it produces two blue petals and one small white petal beneath. This plant is really a weed that loves moist, rich soil and shade. It originated in Asia but escaped to become a weed, especially in our area. Often, we don’t notice it until cleaning up in the fall because it creeps along beneath our perennials.

As for making a houseplant out of it, it doesn’t like to be disturbed but you can place a pot of medium beneath a node and let it root, then experiment with it inside. The plant will disappear with frost but the seeds endure.
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Artemisia
Are white sage, wormwood and dusty miller the same plant?
They all belong to same family; they are species of Artemisia; there are hundreds of species, from absinthe to tarragon. White sage (A. ludoviciana) grows in clumps about three feet high; it has willow-like leaves and gray flowers in summer. We know it better by the cultivars 'Silver King' and 'Silver Queen'. Wormwood (A. absinthium) grows a little taller and is less clumpy; it has gray to yellow flowers that need to be removed to encourage more silver leaves. Dusty miller (A. stelleranan), from Siberia, is loved for its felt-like gray leaves.This plant will often overwinter in mild areas. There is also A. schmidtiana from Japan which forms a nice dome of silver filigree foliage a little over a foot tall and there is southernwood (A. abrotanum), a feathery, gray-green shrub with a nice scent.
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Bacillus thuringiensis
What exactly is BT?
It stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterium that is used to control many insect pests, mainly in their larval stage. Technically, it is a biological pesticide and it is available in liquid, powder, dust and granular formulations. The bacterium works by producing toxins that poison, paralyze, and kill the pest after ingesting B.t. Products with B.t don't work as rapidly as a harsh chemical would, but they do work and they are much kinder to the environment and non-toxic to humans. Also, even though caterpillars can do serious damage to plants, careful observations must be made before spraying - butterflies start out as caterpillars!

Some commercial products add extra letters or names to 'BT' to designate the particular insect they kill. For example, B.t.k. (a caterpillar selective product); it takes about a week for this product to completely do away with the cabbage chewers in my garden. Another product, B.t.i. (B.t. israelensis) will control mosquitoes and flies and B.t.s.d. (B.t. san diego) was developed to control leaf-feeding beetles. Each one of these types has a commercial name and is available at garden centers and nurseries. As with all pesticides, read and follow the directions on the label carefully.
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Basil
My basil keeps putting out flowers even though I pinch them off and the leaves have stopped growing. What is wrong?
Nothing is wrong. Basil is an annual and once it starts to flower, that’s it; all the plant’s energy goes into producing flowers and not more leaves. This is typical for many annuals as their main objective is to produce seeds. Even if you cut the basil back at this point, whatever leaves are produced won’t taste right. They may be a bit bitter and of course, smaller. Start some new plants and place them under fluorescent light for at least fourteen hours a day and use these in winter. Under the counter lights are actually great for kitchen herbs.
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Beggarticks
What are those little seeds (not the burry ones but the small dark brown pincher type) that stick to clothes called?
They are The devil's beggarticks (Bidens frondosa) - and a real pain in the britches, especially when you encounter a patch without noticing. They grow from a branching taproot to three feet tall, or more. The smooth stems are sort of square and ridged and the leaves grow opposite each other. The leaves have short hairs on the underside but the upper surface is smooth, like the stems. There can be both yellow ray flowers and orange disk like flowers on the stems; the yellow ones are often missing. The orange ones are perfect flowers, producing those wedge shaped, barbed seeds that stick to everything. They are an annual, reproducing by the seeds that hitchhike everywhere. Beggarticks like rich, moist soil and establish very quickly in damp waste areas. Learning to recognize them and digging them out is the best method for control.
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Bellflower
I’m confused about bellflowers. At a recent garden tour I saw at least five different types of plants all called bellflowers.
Actually, you probably saw a variety of bluebells—all of them are Campanula species: Capanula carpaticas, called harebell, has large, open deep blue flowers; C. pusilla has drooping flowers and is a good plant for rock gardens; C. garganica has starlike blooms; C. glomerata grows in clusters; C. medium is called Canterbury-bells; C. rotundifolia, the bluebell of Scotland, can become a pest in our area; C. persicifolia, the peach-leaved bellflower, is very tall and easy to grow, with lovely open bell-shaped blooms that are perfect for bouquets; C. poscharskyana, or Serbian bellflower, is extremely easy to grow and very drought resistant; and C. portenschlagiana, Dalmatian bellflower, is a tiny alpine form that is great for rock walls and garden edging.
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Bishopweed
A landscaper suggested that we plant bishopweed under our evergreens, but isn't that a weed?
Not exactly. Bishopweed (Aegopodium podagraria; also known as goutweed or ground elder) is a very aggressive plant that came to us from northern Europe. There is a variety called 'Variegatum' that is less likely to become a pest and which grows quickly to form a mat of cream and green foliage about a foot high. It likes the shade and can be grown right up to the trunks of trees where grass won't grow. The flowers, which resemble Queen-Anne's-lace, do nothing for the plant and are usually removed. This plant is hardy to Zone 3, so it will do well in our Zone 6. During humid summer weather, goutweed, as it is most often called, gets blighted leaves but the foliage can be mowed and fresh new leaves will rapidly return.
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Bittersweet Nightshade
I have a vine on my fence with red berries and funny leaves. The leaves are either single and fat on one end or pointed with two extra small leaves at the base. This vine also stinks. What is this?
The clue is that it has an unpleasant odor. That, plus your description of the leaves, tells me you have bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara). It is a semiwoody vine that twines over other plants or creeps along the ground, rooting at the joints. The foliage has a purplish tinge. The flowers are purple with yellow centers and look like those on the potato plant, a relative. The berries, which are red and oval, break easily to expose lots of yellowish seeds. This vine contains the solanine, a glycoalkaloid that can poison animals.
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Black Plastic Weed Control
Last year we created a new bed in our garden for shrubs. We brought in new soil, put down black plastic, then planted andromeda, hollies, rhododendrons, and azaleas. We then covered the plastic with a 4-inch layer of cedar mulch. Throughout the winter, these shrubs looked sicker and sicker. Is there some sort of disease caused by the mulch that affects all of these plants?
No. Your problem is the black plastic. Newly establish shrubs (or any plants), need water, and lots of it.  With the plastic in place, water isn’t reaching the root zone. Another problem with plastic and landscape fabric as well, is that roots head for the surface and spread out just under the barrier. Get the plastic out of there and rely on mulch alone for weed control. Hopefully your shrubs will recover.
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Blue Green Cap Fungus
I have a piece of wood that is tinted blue and covered with little turquoise blue leathery flowers that look like little saucers. I found this while walking in the woods last fall and thought that it was unusual. What are these?
Those are not flowers. They are a fungus called Chlorociboria aeruginascens, often referred to as blue stain cup fungus or blue green cup fungus. It grows through wood stains it via the threadlike roots. This fungus is found on dead branches of deciduous trees, particularly oaks, throughout most of North America. The little ‘cups’ may be in clusters or scattered along branches. Each one is sort of rubbery with a wavy edge. If you look closely you may see tinges of yellow. There are three other types of fungi in the colors of yellow, orange and red that occur in similar conditions in our area. These little mushrooms are fascinating but should never be eaten.
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Bonsai
How do I overwinter a bonsai plant?  It’s a deciduous type that has been outside since spring. Do I bring it inside or place it in the garage?
It’s not wise to bring in a bonsai that has spent the summer outside. You can place your bonsai in an unheated garage, a shed, or a cold frame, but if you must leave it outside here are a few tips. Give the plant some sort of overhead protection, such as the house eaves or an evergreen shrub. It will be protected from devastating winds if you put it against the house. Lay the plant on its side so water soaking will not be a problem. Mulch the pot with leaves, straw, or evergreen boughs to keep the pot from breaking and the roots from freezing solid. (Plants in the ground have a mass of earth as protection but container plants don’t.) Monitor for water, especially if in a shelter, and water early in the day so excess can drain before colder night temperatures arrive. If in a cold frame, watch for overheating.
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Borax
My son was being helpful and sprinkled a container of borax on my vegetable garden to get rid of the ants. Will this harm the vegetables?
Ouch! Depending on how much was in that container, yes. Borax contains boron which is usually found in soils and is an essential plant nutrient, but excess can be toxic in the environment. Microorganisms do not break down borax so it can remain in the soil for varying lengths of time depending on soil acidity and amount of rainfall. So, remove the top layer of soil, place it in plastic bags that are sealed and labeled. You may want to call the Department of Environmental Management and see if there are any regulations for disposal. You can also request a Material Safety Data Sheet on the product which will provide you with safety precautions, health information, and other data about the product.

For ant control, you want to use a mixture of boric acid mixed with sugar and water.
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Buffalo Grass
What is Buffalo Grass?
Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactylides) is a perennial, blue-green grass native to the Great Plains states. It is a low growing—usually about eight to ten inches high—warm season grass. It tolerates droughts and extreme temperatures, so it can survive under adverse conditions, but it will not grow in sandy soil, in areas of high rainfall, or where there is high traffic or shade. The blades are somewhat curly but flop over to give a lush appearance. Buffalo grass spreads by surface runners and by seed. It was one of the grasses grazed by the herds of buffalo that roamed the Plains and it provided sod for the early settlers. Unless grown under native conditions, Buffalo grass is taken over by other weedy grasses.
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Canada Fleabane
There’s a strange plant that keeps popping up in my perennial garden that must be a weed.  It’s tall with thin leaves along the stems. At the top of each stem there are hundreds of tiny white daisy-like flowers with a yellow center a multitude of thin white petals all around. The plant is about 3 feet tall. Have you any idea what this might be?
I believe you are dealing with Canada fleabane (Erigeron canadensis) or Philadelphia fleabane (E. philadelphicus). The philadelphicus species has over 150 petals and they are sometimes purplish. The leaves appear alternately, getting smaller toward the top of the stalk and are hairy, especially near the base. If you were to crush the leaves and stem you may distinguish a carrot-like smell. This is an annual weed.

Ceramic Containers
I have four beautiful ceramic pots that don’t have drainage holes. Is it a good idea to place gravel in the bottom?  I’m afraid the pots will break if they are drilled to make drainage holes.
You can use gravel if the pots are deep enough but why not locate some plastic pots that will fit into the ceramic ones. This way you can take the pots out of the containers for watering, let them drain well, and then replace them. There will be less danger of root rot this way.
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Christmas Cherry
Is Christmas cherry the same as Jerusalem cherry?
No, Christmas cherry, or ornamental pepper, is Capsicum annuum, nothing more than a chile pepper plant. It has a heavier growth with lots of small, fiery peppers in bright colors - the peppers are so hot even handling them can cause a burning sensation. The leaves can also be colorful and the plant is in full fruit around the holidays, so Christmas cherry is generally sold as an ornamental. To keep the peppers going, mist the plant daily to spread pollen. If the fruits begin to dry up, cut it back hard to force new growth.

Jerusalem cherry is Solanum pseudocapsicum. It has bright, orange-red fruit that comes into color around Christmas. To keep this plant in fruit simply shake the plant to distribute the pollen. Normally treated as an annual, it can be kept longer by severe pruning. Like the Capsicum annuum, it likes bright light and moist, not wet, soil. The fruits of Jerusalem cherry are toxic so keep them away from small children and your pets.
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Classroom Plants
My second grade class wants to grow plants in the classroom windows, like avocado, carrot and turnip tops, and sweet potato. Could you please give me some advice?
Your students have a wonderful idea, good for them. Avocado seeds are best started in water. Place the seed in a small glass with the butt end down and just touching the water, or insert toothpicks around the seed to hold it up. After roots develop, plant the seedling in a good size pot and place it in bright but not direct light; sun coming through the windows may be too strong and could scorch the leaves. Water it when the soil feels dry.

Carrots, turnips, and other similar roots are simple. Slice off to tops and place them in wet sand or water (that has to be changed daily). They will take off and eventually develop flowers and seeds. These are bi-annual plants which means the roots develop in the first year and the seeds develop in the second year. Once roots develop and the tops start to grow, place the plant in a pot filled with a growing medium.

Sweet potato may present a problem unless you purchase one from an organic supplier to obtain a non-treated tuber. Place the tuber in a long narrow jar with the wide end up and the bottom part in about an inch of water. Start this one in a dark location until roots form. You can keep growing sweet potato in water but it grows best when potted. As with the avocado, be careful of sun scorch. The potato will grow a nice vine; pinch it occasionally to make it full. It makes an excellent hanging plant.

Coastal Planting
What do you recommend for planting in a yard on the bay?
Choose environmentally safe plants, that is, those that belong in the area and won't require the use of pesticides or excess fertilizers to stay healthy. These are called sustainable plants. Everything we put in the ground ends up in our bay sooner or later but this can be minimized by planning ahead, like you are doing. Thank you.

Great shrubs include arrowwood (Virburnum dentatum), bayberry (Myrica pennsylvanica), beach plum (Prunus maritima), highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), inkberry (Ilex glabra), fuzzy deutzia (Deutzia scabra), sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), and winterberry holly (Ilex verticillata). Oh, and Rosa rugosa, that tough, fragrant rose which is a wonderful hedge and is also excellent for the sandy soils.

For trees, try red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) or red maple (Acer rubrum). As for flowers, there are many hardy perennials, such as aster, black-eye Susan (Rudbeckia serotina), yarrow (Achillea), daylily (Hemerocallis), Coralbells (Heuchera) - the list is endless, so check what grows naturally in your area and stick with those. You can even grow roses and dahlias!

Research the growing requirements of plants before purchasing them to find the ones that don't mind the wind, those that prefer a sandy soil, ones having no real pest problems, and, perhaps most important, those that won't become invasive.
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Coffee Grounds for the Garden
Do I have to compost coffee grounds or can they be placed directly into the garden?
Yes, coffee grounds can be put directly into the soil. They are also a good green material for compost because they increase nitrogen. If you are getting grounds from local coffee houses in bulk, limit the amount to 25 percent of the compost pile. Actually, the acidity in coffee grounds isn’t as bad as once thought since most of the acidity is removed during brewing. Unfortunately, you would need over seven pounds of grounds for every 100 square feet to change the pH of soil just a smidgen. 

Coffee grounds can be also be used to make a liquid, fast-acting fertilizer by placing one half pound of grounds into a five-gallon bucket of water and letting it sit outside to warm up and brew for a few hours. Another use is as a slug repellant; just encircle the area where slugs are a problem with the grounds.
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Composting
We want to start composting. Can you give us some hints?
You can purchase special composting bins but this isn't necessary. Start with a location out of the sun and where you can prevent excess amounts of water from getting into the pile - beneath an evergreen tree is a good spot. To keep your pile from scattering construct a bin from fence material, wooden pallets, or anything else that will keep the material contained. Your container can be round or square, have an open side or enclosed all around. You may also want to make a couple of 'holding' bins to keep material handy for adding or for working up a second compost pile.

To begin your pile, place some rough material on the bottom such as corncobs, thick twigs, or even a thick later of straw. Then add a layer of material like dried leaves, which have a high carbon content (brown material), a layer of fresh grass clippings, plant cuttings, or kitchen waste, which are high in nitrogen (green material), and cover these layers with about an inch of soil. Water until the pile is like a damp sponge and you have started!

Please, don't put meat or dairy products into your kitchen scraps. Coffee grounds, egg shells, and tea bags are okay. Continue to add layers until the pile is about two feet high. At this point, it's advisable to turn the pile over before continuing or get two piles going. The more you turn, the faster the breakdown occurs. If your pile gets too wet, turn in some dry peat or sawdust to help absorb the water. When the mixture gets dark brown and crumbly it's ready for use. Sort or sift out any material that has not broken down and place into the next pile to finish.
Hint: A pile that can't breathe will smell, as will a pile with too much green material! If it smells, add brown material. If the process is not progressing, add some green material. And remember, keep it moist.
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I added weeds to my compost pile and they grew instead of rotting.
Did you chop them up before adding to the pile? Were the weeds added before they flowered and produced seeds? Did you put them on top of the pile instead of mixing them in so the heat would destroy them? Is the compost pile getting hot enough?

When you add material such as weeds to a compost pile, you have to dry them out to use as a carbon, or brown, material. Plants that spread by roots or runners especially need to be dried first. If something does grow in the pile, chop it up and bury it back in, treating it as a nitrogen, or green, material. Remember, a compost pile needs about 75% brown to 25% green materials, plus water and air to make compost. Too much water, not enough air, and too much green material and your pile will not 'cook' properly…and it will smell foul. Be sure to turn the pile about once a week or when you add larger amounts of materials.
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Container Gardening
Is it necessary to change the soil in my planters each spring?
It would be a good idea to change the soil every spring as there may be pathogens or pupa that have overwintered in it. Soil or a potting medium changes structure after holding plant materials; it loses lightness and compacts so that air and water start having difficulty penetrating to new roots. Also, salts may be present from past fertilization that hasn't been flushed out and old plant material left behind from last year impedes new growth. So, dump the contents into your flower garden, mix in well, and refill those containers—or use fresh packaged potting soil.
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Corn Gluten
I just read about using corn meal to kill weeds. What can you tell me about it?
Actually, what is being used is corn gluten, a by-product of milling. It works by drying up plant sprouts as soon as they emerge. The seed cracks open and the gluten goes to work. In other words, it has to make contact with the weed seeds. It is a good organic material to use as a crabgrass pre-emergent. If you have established weeds, forget it. In fact, corn gluten is also high in nitrogen so it really helps established weeds grow more! The soil has to be warm and bare of growing vegetation for it to work; the application must be repeated every six weeks or so. The good thing is that it is safe for the environment.
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Cornflower
We have a perennial cornflower plant that everyone says won't come back next year…but it's three years old and still growing strong! Are we calling it by the wrong name?
Yes and no. You might have Centaurea montana, which is called bachelor's button as well as cornflower. Centaurea cyanus, the real cornflower, is the annual version that only comes back each spring by reseeding. Centaurea montana, the perennial version, can be purchased in various shades of blue, and there is also a pink variety.

Identifying plants without a picture or seeing them growing is a problem; too many plants are called by the same name. In fact, chicory (Cichorium intybus) is often called cornflower. Still another name for C. cyanus is bluebonnet but you can also be referring to lupines (Lupinus hartwegii) or even Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica).
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Creeping Bellflower
I’m curious about a plant called creeping bellflower. Can you tell me something about it?
Creeping bellflower (Capanula rapunculoides) is also known as harebell, creeping campanula, and creeping bluebell. This perennial came from Europe and Asia many years ago; it is a garden plant that has gone wild. Creeping bellflower has lower leaves that are heart shaped but the upper leaves are more like lances along a tall stalk. The flowers are light blue or purple along the top half of this stalk, growing from axils of upper leaves; they most often grow along one side of the stalk. Not being fussy about shade, sun, or soil, this garden pest grows everywhere; it spreads by a creeping root system and also by seeds. I battle this pest continuously and have learned to recognize the early growth so I can give it the old heave-ho.
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Creeping Thistle
We live in a low area next to Interstate 95 and after they did roadwork a few years ago, this area became full of a thistle. Was it from the hay bales they staked along the road edge?
Most likely. Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense; also known as creeping thistle) is what you have. It's very rampant in our area because of its growth habits. These plants grow to about four feet high and have prickly leaves that are smooth on the top side but somewhat fuzzy underneath. Flowers occur from June to November, creating seeds that take off in the slightest breeze using the attached silky hairs as a parachute. These seeds germinate all throughout the summer - very quickly, usually within a couple of weeks. The rhizomes grow up to fifteen feet from the main stem and sprout so rapidly that there is new bloom within a couple of months. Canada thistle can survive for very long periods, even years, of drought and other adverse conditions. These plants will grow in all types of soil but is very problematic in heavy, wet soils like old worn out fields that receive the runoff from the highway.
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Curly Dock
There is a tall weed growing in my flower garden that has thin leaves that are fluted like the edge of a pie crust. The stem is brown and rather tough to break. At the top it looks like there are a million stalks covered with seeds. It also has a taproot that looks like a skinny carrot. Is it something that should be removed?
You have described curly dock (Rumex crispus), a weed whose seeds can be viable for up to 75 years! Each plant produces over 60 thousand seeds, so I’d get rid of it right away! The seeds do need light to germinate but if you have done any digging in the garden, some were probably brought to the surface. This is a biannual weed: a rosette of leaves is produced the first year but during the second year the plant grows tall. The seeds at the top turn brown as they ripen so get rid of the plant before they reach that stage. This weed is a common pest in damp areas and low spots. The seeds are toxic to poultry and the plant is an alternate host for many vegetable viruses.
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Deer Manure
Can the deer droppings around my shrubs that the deer ate be used as fertilizer in the vegetable garden?
You can rake them up and put them in your compost pile, but don’t use them as a fresh fertilizer. Like all manures, deer droppings have be heated to kill pathogens and a good working compost pile will do just that.  A Federal regulation says that manure has to be composted by heating to 130+ degrees F. If this can’t be accomplished in your compost pile, then don’t use the compost until the following spring. If it is used, veggies that don’t touch the ground, like staked tomatoes and peppers, can’t be picked for 90 days afterwards, the earliest allowable harvesting.  Root crops and greens would go to seed before you could pick them! Maybe the smartest thing to do is use this compost in the flower garden.
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Dog Damage to Hedges
Sections of the juniper hedge around our yard have brown, dried foliage about a foot up from the ground. This isn’t from salt damage as this problem is on the inside of the hedge, not where the snow plows or traffic can throw stuff up on.  Besides, the problem started this past fall.
You are probably looking at damage caused by dogs. Do you have a male dog? Is there one or two in the neighborhood that roam about? Dogs generally urinate in the same spot by habit and other dogs will use the same spot once they smell it. Salt in the dog’s urine burns the foliage, and with repeated visits to the same spot, the branches will eventually die. You may have to protect your hedge which is difficult because nobody wants a hedge and a fence together. A low electric fence will work as long as everyone knows it’s activated.  If the dog is yours, and your yard is big enough, you might consider the invisible fence system. Spray-on repellents can work but you will have to spray the entire hedge and constantly repeat the spraying.  
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Dried Flowers
Can you give me a list of annuals I can grow and use to make dried flower arrangements?
Gosh, a lot of flowers can be dried but some of the easiest annuals are; statice (Limonium), strawflower (Bracteantha bracteata), cockscombs (Celosia), baby's breath (Gypsophila elegans), globe amaranth (Gomphrena globosa), pincushion flower (Scabiosa stellata), moneywort (Lunaria annua), larkspur (Consolida ajacis), bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis), love in the mist (Nigella damascena) and rose everlasting (Helipterum roseum).

If you have a dehydrator, many other annuals can also be preserved though some will fade a bit. You may wish to try Swan River daisy (Brachyscome iberidifolia) and pot marigold (Calendula officinalis). Immortelle (Xeranthemum annuum) flowers dry very well, holding their shape and color. Try experimenting with various flowers and drying methods. Oh, and don't forget to include some grasses.
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Drought-Tolerant Plants
What flowering plants will tolerate a limited water supply?
For one thing, native wildflowers seem to do very well, many perrenials are drought-tolerant, and annuals that reseed themselves are tough. Here are some choices: bigroot cranesbill (Geranium macrorrhizum), daylilies (Hemerocallis), sea lavender (Limonium latifolium), peonies (Paeonia), tickseed (Coreopsis), goldenrods (Solidago; with a number of varieties that don't resemble the wild form at all), sage (Salvia), coneflowers (Echinacea), blanket flower (Gaillardia), black-eyed-Susan (Rudbeckia), asters, blazing star (Liatris), spurges (Euphorbia), ironweed (Veronia lettermannii), Adam's needle (Yucca), and all varieties of sedum are hardy perennials that can stand up to miserable conditions, including drought. For annuals or biennials, try marigolds, strawflowers, statice, Portulaca, Salvia, Verbena, cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), African daisy, pot marigold(Calendula), spider flower (Cleome), and Cosmos.

By no means is this a complete list. Look around and you'll see daisies, milkweeds, butterfly weed, Joe-Pye weed, sunflowers, and all types and ornamental grasses. Most nursery catalogs indicate when a plant tolerates or prefers dry conditions and this should be your guide. This is really sustainable gardening as the plants chosen have fewer problems and need less in the way of insect or disease control, making for a healthy environment.
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Eastern Black Nightshade
What is poison berry? There is a plant growing in our yard that our mailman said is poisonous and we should get rid of it. He called it poison berry.
Yes, Eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum) is poisonous, especially to livestock. Nightshade is spread by birds eating the seeds and it can be found both in poor, sandy locations and in rich soil, often with other solanaceous plants, such as tomatoes and potatoes. The leaves are slightly hairy, resembling maple leaves at the base before elongating and ending in a point. The flowers are in the form of a yellow star and the fruits are black berries that are full of seeds.
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Edelweiss
Can we grow Edelweiss here in Rhode Island?
Yes and no. Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is an alpine plant for dry rocky places and can’t tolerate excess moisture or acidic soil. It’s a short-lived plant to start with. Edelweiss can be grown in containers that mimic it’s natural preferences. The flowers in summer are in tiny yellow clusters surrounded by whitish bracts, making them look like tiny white starflowers from a distance. These are very tiny plants—about 6 or 7 inches high—but sometimes (rarely) up to a foot tall. Remember, they are an alpine plant and our hot, humid summers are not what these plants need.
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Espalier
I've seen fruit trees grown against the walls of homes in the southwest, can we do that here?
Yes, it's called Espalier. The fruit trees are trained to grow flat against a wall or fence by selective pruning. If using a wall, have wires installed about 18 inches apart and running horizontally from 6 to 10 feet across. Height of the espalier is determined by the height of the wall. Also, for the health of the tree, keep the wires at least 6 inches away from the wall.

Plant the tree in the middle and cut off the central stem just below the height of the first wire at 18 inches. This will force new shoots to appear below the cut. As the season progresses, allow only three new shoots to develop. The ones on each side are tied to the wires while the middle shoot becomes the new center trunk. Repeat this procedure until all the wires have branches trained to them and when you have accomplished your goal prune constantly so no new growth is formed. This can also be done with wires stretched between poles and it is often easier to maintain the fruit trees using this method.
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Euonymus Bonsai
I’m learning to do bonsai and was told to get a euonymus plant. Isn’t this plant a climber?
The euonymus known as winter creeper is the climber. You need a Japanese euonymus (Euonymus japonicus). This is a very easy plant to care for as long as it receives enough moisture, indirect bright light, and average humidity. It also likes a temperature between 55 and 70 degrees F. The root system of E. japonicus is small and tolerates pruning very well. Once you establish this plant as a bonsai, give it monthly feedings during the summer and slow it down to every six weeks in spring and fall.
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Ferns
What ferns will grow in an area that gets very little sun each day? I have an area between my lawn and the woods where ferns would be ideal.
As long as the soil in that area is 'woodsy', that is, full of humus, there are quite a few ferns that should do well. For xample, wooly lip fern (Cheilanthes lanosa), hay-scented fern (Dennstaedetia punctilobula), and ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) will do great without a lot of moisture. For damp areas choose sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), the cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), interrupted fern (Osmunda claytoniana), royal fern (Osmunda regalis), and New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis). As long as their cultural requirements are met, all of these ferns will do fine with little care in our Zone 6 climate.
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Can I prune my ferns down to the ground before winter?
This really isn’t advisable. Ferns don’t need pruning; just removing dead foliage is sufficient. This should always be done in the spring because leaving the fronds on all winter protects the crowns. Then, in early spring, very carefully remove them one by one so any emerging growth will not be damaged.
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Fertilizer Composition
What exactly are those numbers on fertilizer bags?
The numbers on fertilizer bags indicate the primary ingredients; it is the national standard. The first number represents the amount of nitrogen (N) for lush, green leaf growth; uses too much of it and you will get large green plants without flowers or fruits! The second number is the amount of phosphorous (P) which stimulates flower and fruit development and enhances the root system. The third number is the amount of potassium (K), which is used by plants for general health, strength, and flower vigor.

This numerical quantity is actually the percentage. So, a bag of 10-10-10 fertilizer would contain 10 percent of each ingredient. To figure out the pounds of each element in the same bag, multiply the total weight of the bag, say 50 lbs. by .10 (or 1/10) for each ingredient. Here's the calculation: 50 lbs. x .10 (repeat for each element) means there is a total of 15 lbs. of nutrients, 5 lbs. of each, in that bag. If a 50 lb. bag had a reading of 8-4-24 there would be 4 lbs. of nitrogen, 2 lbs. of phosphate, and 12 lbs. of potassium or a total of 18 lbs. of nutrients in the bag (50 x .08, 50 x .04, and 50 x .24).
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Field Dodder
There is a vine with dried structures on it but no leaves. The twining part is a rusty color and it is thin. The vine, which is covering my sweet pea trellis, is something I’ve not seen before. What is it and where did it come from?
Well, it’s not new…it’s field dodder…but this year it is rampant. Most of us don’t even notice it until the leaves of the host plant have dropped off. It’s a parasite plant. Stems are thread-like and twining, while the leaves are thread-like scales. The thread-like stem attaches to green plants. Once this parasitic plant attaches to its host, the root-like system disappears and the plant becomes wholly parasitic.  It uses tiny suckers to attach to the host plant. There are small white, five lobed flowers that ripen to a tan patch of seeds and that is what you are seeing now (i.e., “the dried structures”). When you pull it out it might be wise to pull out any plants it is growing on. Next spring, watch for it and yank it out before it flowers. It’s going to take a few years of vigilant weeding to get it under control. 
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Flowering Seedlings
I bought some flower seedlings at a local grocery store last spring and soon after being planted they died, even though they had water and the soil was good. What did I do wrong?
You bought them in flower. Once a seedling is in flower, it won't adapt to being transplanted into a garden as well as a smaller one that hasn't budded yet. When buying seedlings - flowers or vegetables - check the root system. Pop it out of it's cell or pot and see if the roots are tangled up. If so, don't buy this plant because those roots won't expand into their new soil. If there are only a few roots and none growing through the drainage holes, it will be a good plant to purchase, provided it doesn't have other problems.

The smaller the plant and root system, the better the plant will adapt to new surroundings. Look for crisp green leaves, free of holes, without any yellowing, and short stocky stems; long skinny stems are a sign that the plant hasn't had a good start. Check the soil of all the flats of seedlings; if any is dry it means the plants have not been properly cared for even though there may be no signs of wilting. Inspect the stems and leaves, under and over, for any signs of insects, like webbing or a cottony material. Buy from garden centers that grow their own seedlings for the best results. And, make sure they have been hardened off before being placed for sale; plants going from greenhouse to garden are not going to make it.
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Fountain Grass
What can you tell me about Pennisetum alopercuroides, especially one called 'Moudry'?
This plant is commonly known as fountain grass. Barely hardy in Zone 6, this grass is native to much of eastern Asia and Japan. It is the most commonly grown of fountain grass in our area, probably because it is very easy to grow in either sun or light shade. It prefers moist soil but will hang in there during a drought.

'Moudry' is a neat mound that grows to a height of about two feet. It has very dark purple flowers in late summer or early fall. Also, since it self-sows very easily you may wish to cut off the flowers before seeds form. This cultivar was an introduction by the National Arboretum in Washington from seeds brought here from Japan.
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Galls
What are galls and do they have insects in them?
Galls are an abnormal growth that is produced as a result of a local irritation or injury to plant tissue. This could be caused by an insect, bacteria, viruses, fungi, chemicals, or an environmental injury. Each gall could take a page just to explain.

Galls can develop on leaves, stems, or roots. They can contain the eggs of insects or the insect itself. Galls can be named for the occupants, as in aphid galls, adelgid galls, psyllid galls, galls from flies, mites, and wasps, plus a host of others. Other galls are named for the plant on which they are found, such as the rose gall (caused by a wasp). Galls can be all colors and shapes depending on the host and cause. The most commonly known form of gall is the large brown gall from oak trees that produces a puff of powder when you step on it.
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Garden Journal
I read that it is important to keep a garden journal. Is it really necessary?
In order to stay ahead of pests, achieve your goals, and remember what’s planted where… yes, it is important. Here are some examples of items for your journal. If you made note of when a certain pest arrived or how much damage it was doing, you will know when to prepare for it next year. Making note of when plants bloom will help you plant for a continuous display of flowers. Marking down when you feed your plants, especially if using a combination systemic pest control and fertilizer, is also very important because this needs to be done on a regular schedule. Make note of any plant that isn’t doing well and any reasons you think may be causing the decline. Write down ideas as you think of them; ideas and solutions often come to us at the oddest times! Use these notes to plan ahead. By doing this you will find that gardening chores become easier, potential problems are avoided, and you will enjoy your gardens so much more.
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Gardening Books
Can you recommend some books for gardeners?
I don't like to recommend any particular garden book but I will offer the following advice. Always remember one thing about any garden book: make sure the book contains information you can use. Don't buy a book by just looking at the cover or even from reading a description in a catalog. Pretty pictures are just pretty pictures. Don't buy one because it's on sale if it isn't going to further your gardening skills. Look for information that pertains to your area and your particular interests. A book about desert gardening is of no use to a New England gardener unless it is used for research. Gardening encyclopedias and reference books are a must and if you are a serious gardener, books on botanical nomenclature and plant terminology are a necessity. Look at the specialty books - books that offer valuable information on one particular subject. A book on individual plants, such as roses or moss might be well worth a purchase if that is your interest. Find the ones that suit your needs, read them…and don't let them get dusty.
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Geraniums and Pelargoniums
What is the difference between pelargoniums and geraniums?
Pelargoniums are the annual plants with blooms in shades of red that we use for hanging baskets, window boxes, and patios. When first brought from South Africa to Europe in the 1700s they were called geranium and, unfortunately, that incorrect name stuck. Pelargonium means stork's bill, deriving from the Greek perlargos; the name refers to the shape of the long fruits. The flowers are divided into two halves and they have a nectary, that is, a gland that secretes nectar.

Geraniums are hardy perennial plants that bloom every summer and die back every winter. The name comes from geranos, the Greek work for crane and the fruit is shaped like a crane's bill. The fruits are split but are a little shorter than those of pelargoniums and the flowers have no nectary. Johnson's blue is one of the well-know geraniums that are planted in perennial gardens.
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Grip Trench
What is a grip trench? I’ve been reading about how to propagate shrubs and creating a grip trench is mentioned?
A grip trench is a slit made by inserting a spade vertically into the ground. It helps to move the spade back and forth to open up this trench to insert the hardwood cuttings. Once these cuttings are in place, step down on both sides of the slit to close the soil against the twigs.
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Ha-ha Fence
What is a ha-ha fence? Is it where stumps are piled in fields?
A ha-ha is a deep and wide ditch dug in such a way that it cannot be seen unless you are almost on top of it. They were very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries around manor houses. By constructing a ha-ha, the view from the windows of these homes wouldn't be obstructed. Livestock were seen at a distance but couldn't get into the nearer yards or gardens. Guess you would say it was an invisible fence.

Just as New Englanders utilized excess rocks for walls, in many areas of the country stumps from cleared areas are piled to create barricades. After the trees had been cut for lumber, the stumps were pulled and why bother building a fence when the stumps did the job! Usually, after the stumps start to disintegrate, wire fencing is installed.
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Hawaiian Lei Flowers
We just returned from Hawaii and I’m trying to find out about the flower they used to make the leis. Anything you can tell me would be appreciated.
They are flowers with a heavenly fragrance, right? It is Plumeria rubra, a shrub native to the islands. Having lived there for awhile, and having one in my yard, I know how difficult they can be. Plumeria needs a long day to grow; short days of winter put them into dormancy. Also, the temperature needs to be around 60 degrees F or more.

Tip cuttings are often available at flower shows and at specialty flower shops. Dip the cut end into rooting hormone then place it into a mixture of perlite and peat that is kept damp all the time but not soaking wet. Give it lots of light, at least 14 hours a day, and wait. If all goes well, you should see flowers within a year. Don’t get discouraged, it takes a long time.
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Hedging
We just recently moved into the carriage house portion of a very old estate. Along our border with the larger house there is, or was, a hedge of some type with upright metal hooks. I asked an elderly neighbor about them and he said they were part of the pleaching, plashing, and hedging. I don't want to appear stupid but what is he talking about?
Well, those are terms we just don't hear anymore. They all refer to the method that was used way back when for creating nice, thick privacy hedges. It is a way of creating a hedge by bending down and interweaving branches to create density (i.e., plashing), and the training of branches and twigs of trees and shrubs to form a windbreak, (i.e., pleaching).

Now, what about those metal hooks? They were used where stems of shrubs were cut part way and bent at an angle to be interwoven between the stakes. Hedgers, who were the special gardeners who did all this, were very proud of their craft. Today, we just shear the shrubs with trimmers to create new growth.
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Herbs
I want to plant herbs that have a light gray or silvery color. Can you suggest any?
Yes, I can name some for you. You said herbs, so I'm assuming you mean plants for an herb garden. There are many other annuals and perennials that will fit into this color group as well.
Herbs of interest are: yarrow (Achillea) 'Moonshine', curry plant (Helichrysum), lamb's ears (Stachys byzantina), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), rue (Ruta graveolens), thyme (Thymus), artemisia (Artemisia species), santolina (Santolina chamaecyparissus), and horehoud (Maarrubium vulgare).

For added interest try dusy miller (Senecio), silver lace (Tanacetum ptamrmiciflorum), licorice plant (Helichrysum) and bachelor's buttons (Centaurea). Erygium (sea holly) has silvery foliage and don't skip cardoons (Cynara cazrdunculus) with gray foliage that is out of this world.
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Herbs in Containers
I purchased 240, 4-inch clay pots to give away as favors at my wedding in September. I was thinking to plant rosemary, thyme, sage, basil, or other herbs but wasn’t sure how to go about doing this. When is a good time for me to start the plants?
What a nice idea! Here are a few things you may want to think about. Rosemary has a poor germination record and basil is fussy, often looking ragged if not kept pinched. Then there is thyme. Not only is it a perennial that can be enjoyed for a long time, but it has a wonderful aroma. Creeping thyme would be ideal as the leaves are tiny and it would tumble over the sides of the pot. 
I have a suggestion, start the seeds in cell packs instead of your clay pots because the constant watering may cause staining or they even get mold. Start them 6 to 8 weeks before transplanting into the clay pots and allow another 2 to 3 weeks for them to establish. If you start the seeds in June you should have some lush pots of thyme by September. 
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Herbs to Attract Bugs
What herbs can be used to attract the good bugs to my garden?
A lot of them, but they will only help if planted among your veggies or flowers. Both German and Roman chamomile are great. You can also try dill fennel, parsley, nasturtium, and tansy. Any of the spearmints will work well if they are contained – these herbs spread like wildfire. Lovage is known to provide housing for ground beetles.
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Horsetails
There is a stream at the edge of our property and some strange plants are growing along the edge in the gravel and sand. One is a stalk about 2 feet high with what reminds me of a baby pineapple on top and the other has loads of needles along the stem like the spines of an umbrella with one set above the other. 
You have horsetails (Equisetum). Species are perennial pests once they become established. That “pineapple” is full of yellow spores that will aid in reproduction. The bushy one, a hollow stalk with whorls at each joint, will die with the first frost, but the thick roots survive winter without difficulty. To control horsetails, dig up the roots because these plants propagate mainly by roots spreading underground. Because the plants grow next to streams, chemical controls are not advised.
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Humus
What is humus? I hear the word all the time on gardening shows but they never say what it is.
Humus is the substance created by the slow decomposition of organic matter by bacteria and fungi which break down vegetation into elements that plants can readily utilize. Humus is the most important component of our soils. It improves soil structure as well as water intake and holding capacity, and it gives soil the ability to resist erosion.

When we add compost to our gardens it is the creation of humus that makes the soil fertile. Often confused with organic matter, humus has no definite shape or structure but is a dark, spongy substance that is often called the 'life' of the soil.
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Hybrid Seeds
I planted some large orange marigolds from seed saved from the year before and some didn't come up while others were nothing like they should have been. Why?
That large orange marigold was probably Orange Lady, one of the Lady Hybrid series and the seeds will not give you the same plant as the parent. Hybrids are basically mongrels. Created by cross breeding or pollinating two parents of the same family, it's a mixture of characteristics from the two plants. One might be chosen for color and another for hardiness. The seeds from the progeny will recreate a grandparent or ancestor but not the same plant as the parent, or it will not germinate at all because they are sterile. If the seeds are not sterile, it's amazing what grows.

Saving seeds from flowers and vegetables used to be the only way to garden. Today, plant breeders have created larger, hardier and all around better plants by hybridizing. Make notes of the performance and beauty of plants grown from seed and keep this information with the saved seed package. Then you will know the proper one to order again.
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Hydroponics
What exactly is hydroponics?
It means growing plants in water without soil. Of course, the water has nutrients added. The word hydroponics comes from the Greek hydro meaning water and ponos meaning work. Plants are either suspended in a nutrient solution or they are grown in a soil-free medium, such as sand, perlite, or gravel. Lettuce, tomatoes, and other greens are produced this way by many growers. It doesn’t necessarily yield any more crops than conventional methods but it is labor saving. It was originally thought that using hydroponics roots don’t have to spread as far to reach nutrients and, therefore, plants could be placed closer together for greater yields.
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Insect-Eating Plants
How do plants like the Venus flytrap eat insects?
Insectivorous plants, such as the Venus fly trap (Dionaea), pitcher plants (Sarracenia), sundews (Drosera), bladderworts (Utricularia), butterworts (Pinguicula), and others, have various ways of trapping and digesting insects. They really don’t ‘eat’ them but rather utilize the decayed insect as a source of nutrients. Most of these plants grow in boggy conditions where nitrogen, in particular, is always lacking.

All insectivorous plants have modified leaves, usually with downward facing hairs, that stop the insect from escaping once lured into the trap. Some leaves close over or roll up around the insect, thereby preventing escape, while others drown the insect or use a ‘glue-like’ formula to hold the prisoner firm until it dies. Once this happens, the plant manufactures juices that dissolve the insect so the plant can absorb the necessary nutrients.
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Invasive Plants in Rhode Island
Can you tell me some of the invasive plants in Rhode Island?
Yes, of course. Let’s start with Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), porcelain vine (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata), multiflora rose (Rose multiflora), Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), burning bush (Euonymus alatus), non native honeysuckles (Lonicera morrowii and Lonicera bella), common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Japanese knotweed (often called Japanese bamboo; Fallopia japonica), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria).  As for water plants, stay away from fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana) and watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum).
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Will you please tell me why plants like Dame’s Rocket and the white wild roses are considered invasive? 
Invasive plants are those that are not native to the region. They often grow faster and taller, and shade out other, desirable plants. They are overbearing and free of diseases and insects. Often they appear sooner and stay later than native plants, thus taking all the nutrition from the ground and using up the space. Most invasives reproduce easily; the fleshy fruits are eaten by birds and so seeds are dispersed. Both of the plants you asked about meet all the criteria for invasives.
The government classifies an invasive as a plant that is not native to the ecosystem and when established is likely to cause economic, environmental, and even human health harm. 
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Inverted Sod
We are going to put in new flower beds this spring but don’t want to keep the grass that we chop up. If we dig the grass out in squares can we reuse them elsewhere other than for lawn?
Absolutely. My first raspberry bed was inverted sod from an excavation. Cut the grass into manageable squares (usually a foot or less on a side) about 6 inches deep. Turn them over and let them dry for a few days. Next, if you wish to retain the soil, shake each square to loosen the soil, then knock it off with a trowel and toss the grass with roots into a container. Let these dry out in the sun and toss them into the compost pile. Or, if you are going to use new soil, place the squares in a wheelbarrow or container then stack them upside down in an out of the way location. Once stacked, cover them with black plastic and let them compost. After a few weeks you may be able to poke a hole in the plastic and plant something, making sure that you water directly at the stem area. Any holes in the plastic will encourage grass to grow again.
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Ivy Topiary
I have had an ivy topiary plant for two years now, kept in an east window. Lately the older leaves are starting to crumple and turn brown but the vines are still growing and producing leaves. It gets plenty of water and I don’t overfeed it. I created this from ivy growing along my wall. Any suggestions?
As an ivy vine grows the older leaves dry up and fall off while new growth continues. Vines will root where they touch the ground. Used in a topiary it is unable to do this so the old leaves that dry up have no replacement. You need to train the new growth to cover the old. You may wish to start over again with new soil and a slow-release fertilizer, pinning the new growth onto the medium every so often to create more coverage.
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Japanese Knotweed
How can I get rid of Japanese knotweed?
You have to be very aggressive! Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum; also know as Japanese bamboo and rice cane) is very difficult to eradicate. It is a weed that was brought to this country as an ornamental plant and has escaped to march wherever it wishes by means of suckers and underground rhizomes —it spreads extremely fast.

The tops may be killed by frost each year but the rhizomes keep coming back every spring. The problem is these rhizomes are very tough and go deep into the ground and the common methods of killing weeds just won't work. The more one tries to kill it, the more it comes back with a vengeance! Every time you cut it back, you're just pruning it. However, with persistence and weed killers it can be done.

It needs to be sprayed with an herbicide during the summer and then cut down. You may have to repeat this a second year, then you'll begin to win the long war. The herbicides are going to be chemicals like Round-Up or Brush-Be-Gone. After you see some browning of the plant, cut it down. Never put a rototiller to it; every small piece of root that you chop up can turn into another plant.
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Is it feasible to hire a backhoe to dig out a vast amount of Japanese knotweed?  I’m sick and tired of digging it out every year and Roundup doesn’t do the job.
That’s a good question. Because the roots of Japanese knotweed go so deep and travel so far, using a backhoe would make removal easier but the weight of that machine can really do damage. For instance, where are your water, sewer, power, and gas lines. Think about whether you have to move the backhoe over any of these services and then consider the following. A heavy machine will compact soil, resulting in restricted plant growth due to lack of air and water. Then, what if the backhoe digs into your tree roots? You are going to see them die later on.  Perhaps it might bump a tree limb or trunk, creating wounds that attract insects. Are you prepared to pick through the soil being lifted and pull out all the roots?  Are you able to bring in more soil to fill gaps? Of course, you will then have to replant the entire area that you dug. Better think about this carefully. Of course, if the knotweed is in a field with nothing around it, then go for it!  
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Jerusalem Cherry
Is Christmas cherry the same as Jerusalem cherry?
No, Christmas cherry, or ornamental pepper, is Capsicum annuum, nothing more than a chile pepper plant. It has a heavier growth with lots of small, fiery peppers in bright colors—the peppers are so hot even handling them can cause a burning sensation. The leaves can also be colorful and the plant is in full fruit around the holidays, so Christmas cherry is generally sold as an ornamental. To keep the peppers going, mist the plant daily to spread pollen. If the fruits begin to dry up, cut it back hard to force new growth.

Jerusalem cherry is Solanum pseudocapsicum. It has bright, orange-red fruit that comes into color around Christmas. To keep this plant in fruit simply shake the plant to distribute the pollen. Normally treated as an annual, it can be kept longer by severe pruning. Like the Capsicum annuum, it likes bright light and moist, not wet, soil. The fruits of Jerusalem cherry are toxic so keep them away from small children and your pets.
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Lady’s Thumb
We have a weed in our garden that the local nursery told us was lady’s thumb and to apply Roundup©. We don’t want to use chemicals in our flower garden so is there another way of dealing with this weed?
Absolutely.  Lady’s thumb is Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum penslyvanicum).  It grows to about three feet with semi-hard stems that swell where the leaves are attached. As the plant matures, the bottom sheaths dry up and fall off. It’s an annual, reproducing by seeds, and there are loads of them. This plant can tolerate wet or compacted soil, shade, acidic soils, and poor soils. Increasing the pH of your soil, that is, making the soil less acidic, adding compost to improve soil structure, and using mulch will this weed. Hand pulling before it sets seeds is another way to control it. 
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Leaf Litter
We have always cleaned our yard each autumn so there will be no leaves or other material left on the ground during the winter. Recently, someone said we shouldn’t do this as it takes away food for the birds and kills butterflies.  So, are we supposed to leave the leaves or rake them up?
Leaving the leaves where they fall is good for the soil, birds, butterflies, and small animals. First, as leaves decompose they replenish the soil. Take a good look at the ground in the woodlands and notice the difference in that soil and your yard. Second, consider this another form of pest control: during winter months, birds and small animals forage in the leaves looking for insects, pupae, larvae, and small amphibians. Third, certain butterflies do overwinter as larvae in leaf litter.

However, you have to ask whether the fallen leaves from a healthy plant or one that was diseased? Diseased material that can ‘come alive’ when fungal spores germinate in the spring shouldn’t be left. The major problem is with fruit trees, though there are some diseases of other trees that also can be controlled with a cleanup. One more thing to consider is wind. If your yard is open to wind there are no leaves left by spring.  
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Lichens
While taking a walk across a field with my elderly neighbor, he referred to moss on the ground as British soldiers and pixie cups. Is he pulling my leg?
No, but it isn't moss; he just used the common names for a couple of lichens. Pixie cups are really pyxie cups (Cladonia pyxidata). They are a gray, scaly, goblet- shaped growth that grow to about a half inch in dry, sandy soil. There is another species, known as ladder lichen (Cladonia verticillata), that is very similar except that each goblet grows from the center of the one below it, making it taller than the pyxie cups, and they are also a little greener.
The British soldiers (Cladonia cristatella) are easily recognized by the red tips on small stems of a lumpy growth. The vegetation is gray if dry, and green if moist.

All of these species will grow in the sun, and on old wood as well. Take a magnifying glass out to the field and examine them. You will be fascinated by their growth habits. They make a wonderful addition to a child's Fairy Garden!
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Loostrife
I'm confused about loosestrife. I heard that it is an invasive, yet the white ones are sold in nurseries. Can you help me?
The invasive species are purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia punctata). The plants sold in nurseries belong to the genus Lysimachia: creeping Jenny (L. nummularia) is a sprawling ground creeper with yellow flowers and L. vulgaris is a white upright, but is somewhat invasive. Chinese loosestrife (L. clethroides) has spikes of tiny white flowers resembling Buddleia and is well behaved. This plant blooms in late summer and likes moist soil. You may also see hybrids of Lythrum that are supposed to be noninvasive; I tried two cultivars, 'The Beacon' and 'Lady Sackville' and neither made it through our Zone 6 winter.
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Manure Fertilizer
Why is manure considered better for the garden than chemical fertilizers? 
Because the addition of organic matter to soil will result in conversion of plant residues to humus.
Horses seem to have the most valuable manure as it is richer in nitrogen from the grains they eat. Horse and sheep manures are considered hot manures compared with the cold manure of cows or pigs. The difference is the content of urine; urine contains more nitrogen and potash and is valuable in converting crop residues into humus. Also, the softer (cow flops) the manure the less likelihood there is of burning plants. If manure has dried out and turned white, it has lost all nutrient value.

The N-P-K values for one ton of manure is: horse = 14-5-11, pig = 10-7-8, chickens = 20-16-9, cows = 12-3-9, and sheep and goats = 19-7-20. 

All manure needs to be composted before coming into contact with plants. If you are going to use fresh manure in your garden, till it into the soil at least one month to six weeks before planting.
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Master Gardener Program
Master Gardeners seem to know all the answers. What degree of education is needed to become one?
The truth be known, we don't know everything but we do know where to get the answers. As for degrees, there are doctors, lawyers, homemakers, secretaries, accountants, you name an occupation and there will be a Master Gardener included. The qualification to become one is a love of gardening and a desire to share what you have learned with others.

Trainees go through extensive basic training in garden related topics and undertake 50 hours of volunteer activities prior to earning the title Master Gardener. They continue to learn through advanced education programs that are given every year. We've earned the privilege of working with the best specialists in their fields. We volunteer, utilizing this knowledge, at various functions throughout our regions, plus, we maintain the gardening <hotline> and the Master Gardener Association web site.

Our goal is to advise and educate the public about the best ways of handling horticultural problems with the safest ecological methods available to protect our environment. To find more out the Master Gardener Association click here.
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Mayapple
We just bought a home surrounded by woods in the western part of the state. There is a plant growing in these woods that has a slightly pink, waxy flower that smells strange. I was told they are mandrakes. What can you tell me about them?
Called American mandrake, it’s mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) and it is in flower during May with white but sometimes a pink-tinged bloom. The leaves are large and look rather like an umbrella over the flower. Mayapple loves a well-drained woodsy soil where the falling leaves protect it during winter months. A yellowish apple will form on these plants but after that the plant dies back during the heat of summer. This is a perennial with creeping rootstock so it spreads, but slowly.

You are lucky to have these wild flowers; many of us purchase them for our woodland gardens. This isn’t generally seen in the wild in the eastern part of New England so someone may have placed them there.
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Milkweed
How do you control milkweed? We like to have it in an old pasture for the butterflies but it's invading the yard and gardens.
You do lots of mowing! Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) has roots that spread like wildfire. Also, those seed pods, used in WWII to fill life vests, pop open with a vengeance, shooting seeds into the air like a barrage of rockets. Once airborne, these little parachutes float for some distance before alighting. It isn't long before milkweed is everywhere. Constant mowing seems to be the best weapon as it will weaken the root systems forcing them to retreat to the old meadow.
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Moss
How do we get rid of the moss in our lawn?
Moss grows where other things won't, forming a soft mat of green that nobody appreciates in their lawn - and, sometimes, nowhere else either. There are reasons that this is happening, including compacted soil, acidic soil, soil with low fertility, shady location, or poor drainage. Chemical controls will only temporarily remove the moss; it will return until the contributing conditions are corrected.

First, have the soil tested and amend according to the recommendations you receive. Then, loosen soils that are compacted to a depth of at least 4 inches and add recommended lime and fertilizer or compost. This process will also break up the moss and improve oxygen levels in the soil. Improve drainage if the soil is moist by raising soil levels, adding sand to the soil, or installing drains. Increase the amount of light on the lawn by thinning out any trees that shade the area, which also allows for a better air circulation.

Be aware that maples and a few other trees have numerous surface roots that absorb all the nutrients in the area, thereby making it impossible for grass to grow but exacerbating conditions in which moss will thrive. If you cover these roots with soil, you could kill the tree so an alternative to grass may be needed, such as a low ground cover.

Finally, select a grass that suits your needs. There are blends available that will withstand rough playing by children and pets, grow well in shade, and even repel diseases and insects.
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Is it easy to establish a moss garden?
Yes…and they are beautiful. All you need is the right location and a supply of moss. This moss will have to come from your own property, taken from that of a friend (with permission), or be purchased from a supplier. As for location, shady areas on the north side of your home, beneath trees, or in rocky areas around water gardens will do fine as long as the soil is acidic. If you are going for a natural looking moss garden be sure to place those items of structural interest in first. This includes items such as old logs, stones, ferns, or other plants that tolerate the same conditions as moss. Moss will eventually establish on it's own but this takes time, so transplanting sheets or patches of moss to become established is the preferred method.

It's best to start with small areas and let the moss settle in; it's senseless to transplant large areas and not have it survive. Make sure the sheet of moss you chose makes good contact with the soil and keep it damp for at least the first year until it begins to spread. Three years ago, I moved some sheets of moss - two varieties - from an old stone wall on my property to the rocks around my water garden. It spread and now it looks like it has been growing there for ages. The only problem I encountered was wildlife turning the sheets over looking for insects. A quick watering of both rock and moss reestablishes the contact in no time.
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Moss Paint
I want to have flowerpots covered in moss. How is this done?
You do this by creating a 'moss paint' called slurry. Here's how: First, get some clean moss, diluted manure (there are drawbacks!), and buttermilk or yogurt. Process ta cup of clean moss with manure, not tightly packed, and two and a half cups of whatever liquid you wish to use in a blender. (Unless you have an old blender you don't intend to use for normal kitchen work, don't use the manure.) After processing this mixture, paint it on pots that have been soaked in water. Keep the pots moist at all times with a fine mist, depending on the temperature; misting once a day will do. Place the pots in a shady location and don't let them dry out at all if you want to keep the moss alive. Generally you will see some thin green coloration establishing in about two months.
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Mulch
We want to apply mulch around the house foundation but have been told it will attract termites.
Using wood chip mulch could cause a problem if your house sills are close to the ground. It's wise to keep wood mulches at least a couple of feet away. Some people opt for stone mulches around house foundations, which is fine as long as it doesn't reflect heat as this can be a problem with air conditioning in the summer and will really have a negative effect on plants during the winter.

What are the soil conditions around your foundation? If it doesn't drain well, the addition of organic mulch that is too deep only compounds the problem as it packs down. Three to four inches is all that is needed. Other than wood chips, types of mulches include shredded bark, straw, dried grass, chopped leaves, pine needles, coca bean, and buckwheat hulls.

Plastic is fine beneath stone pathways but since it doesn't allow water or air to get into the soil it is not good to use for planted areas. It is great in the veggie garden beneath tomatoes and such if there is an irrigation system installed! Newspapers can be used beneath mulch but if left unanchored they blow all over. Landscape fabric is good beneath stones, walkways, and other mulches because it is permeable.
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We are ready to order mulch but don’t know how much to get. Most is sold by cubic yards, but some by tons. Do you have any guidelines for buying mulch?
When they use the word ‘ton’ it seems like an excessive amount but it doesn’t cover that much. Yardage on the other hand appears just the opposite. A two cubic yard pile doesn’t look like it will go very far at all, however:
A cubic yard of soil, compost or mulch roughly does:
                             320 square feet at 1 inch in depth
                             160 square feet at 2 inches in dept
                             110 square feet at 3 inches in depth
                             80 square feet of 4 inches in depth
A cubic yard of soil weighs more than one ton (2000 lbs), while a cubic yard of sand or gravel will weigh in close to 3000 lbs.
If you wish to haul the mulch yourself, keep the weight in mind. A full size pickup truck will generally hold 2 to 3 cubic yards of mulch. 
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Mullein
There's a tall, light green, fuzzy spike growing in my flowerbed that has little yellow flowers at the top. I don't recall planting anything that looks like it, any ideas?
Yes, it is common mullein (Verbascum thapsus). It really is a weed but if they pop up in my garden I leave them alone. Mullein was once grown in Colonial cottage gardens. If you look around the stalk this fall you will probably see a rosette of fuzzy leaves. This plant is a biennial: the rosette will form the first year from dropped seeds; the stalk will spring up the second year, form flowers, and then produce seeds before dying.

These plants can grow quite tall. The upper stem will have smaller, pointed leaves whereas the base leaves are large. If we water our gardens a lot or if there is a lot of rain, this plant isn't as happy or likely to germinate; it prefers a dry, gravelly soil but I find it does well in pinebark mulch. If you want to get rid of it, just pull it up and let dry out.

Moth mullein (V. blattaria) is another type of mullein that is even prettier. It has dark irregularly lobed leaves, smaller leaves on the stalk, and the flowers are loosely formed, not clustered together like the common mullein. The leaves of moth mullein are not as fuzzy either.
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Multiflora Rose
How do I get rid of multiflora rose?  It’s very pretty but has become a pest in our backyard along the fence line with the neighbor.
The answer is yes…but you need persistence. Unfortunately, multiflora rosa has become an invasive. They grow to about 10 feet high and they make excellent nesting sites for birds. However, birds spread the seed by eating the red hips on the shrub all winter long.

Dig out what plants you can, getting as much root as possible, then cut the remaining stems at the soil line and continue to do this as long as new growth appears. You can also apply thick mulch over the cut stems to ‘starve’ the plants of sun and water. Start with heavy cardboard topped with heavy plastic, covered with a 3- to 4-inch layer, or more, of wood chips or bark mulch. Leave this mulch down for a couple of years at least.

Why is multiflora rose so underrated around here?  This shrub makes good cattle fences where I came from.
Multiflora rose is a fast growing shrub that has become invasive here in the northeast but especially in the south. Originally, it was promoted to farmers by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service for conservation. I have some growing along the edge of the woods and found that the mockingbirds love it for nesting. Multiflora will grow into a thick hedge coated with white flowers in the summer. It’s the small red hips that are relished by the wildlife as food throughout the winter. The plant is bound to show up wherever birds congregate. It also has a bad habit of having the canes root as they bend to the ground. Like Rosa rugosa, when the shrub starts to spread out, a little mowing takes care of any potential invasion.
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Mum and Sedum Floppers
Why have my mums and 'Autumn Joy' sedum flopped to the ground?
Mums will grow tall if not cut back early in the season. The trick is to pinch them back continuously from Memorial Day until the first of July and your mums should be nice and bushy. You can easily root the cuttings for more plants by popping them into some moist medium and putting them in a shady location. Fertilize only until the end of July. Some of us, me included, prefer to have tall mums for cut flowers in the fall as they last so long in a vase, but we have to use plant rings to keep them upright.

'Autumn Joy' sedum will grow tall and fall over from the weight of the flowers if the soil is rich and moist. We often can't do a thing about moisture during rainy fall weather, so again, use plant rings to contain them even tough they still may flop over the rings. However, I discovered a solution. Using two inexpensive tomato cages, I cut through the rings of the cages, bending the cut ends back into hooks - one cage had hooks bending downward and the other sideways. Spreading both cages open, I placed one on each side of the plant, connected the hooks, and pushed the feet into the soil. This made larger and taller cages to contain the floppy offender.
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Mushrooms
My yard was established three years ago when the land was cleared and we have mushrooms all over the place. Why? Are they edible?
What happened to the trees when the land was cleared? Are the mushrooms arranged in circles? Some mushrooms are the fruit of a fungus that feeds on dead or dying organic material; these are called saprophyte fungi. If a fungus were feeding on living material it would be called to as parasitic, and we all know what parasites are. The cycle develops when a spore germinates, producing a long thread (a mycelium) that is sent to the surface where a fruit develops. Fungus spores are always around but need ideal conditions to germinate.
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DO NOT EAT THEM. Without professional identification never consider any mushroom safe. Even with good identification books there are just too many "ifs" involved. The slightest "if it doesn't have or if it does have" can distinguish a poisonous mushroom from an edible one. If the mushrooms are bothering you, just rake them away.
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Native Plants
Recently, someone on a TV show recommended a couple of shrubs that have red leaves in the fall and could be used to replace winged euonymus which is invasive. The narrator said these bushes would also attract birds. Do you know what they are?
Most likely mentioned were highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa). The leaves of both shrubs turn red in the fall, both have berries for the birds, and they are easy to grow. Or, fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica) might have been mentioned. This shrub has brilliant red foliage in the fall. We need to rely more on our own native species not only to combat invasive plants when but in looking at water conservation.
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens has a website for alternative plants: www.bbg.org/nativealternatives  

Can you suggest some native plants, one a climber, to use around an old weather-warn barn? We would like something that looks nice in the fall to compliment the maples.
For your climber, how about Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)?  This is a gorgeous fall foliage vine with bright red glossy leaves that grows to around 30 feet or so. It is deciduous so it will lose leaves in winter. 
As for shrubs, try sumac (Rhus glabra), a deciduous shrub that turn vivid red in the fall, or staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) whichhas red fruit structures that stand upright from the outstretched stems. You should also consider blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) which are not only a treat for the birds but for you as well (if you pick to them soon enough).
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Neem
What is Neem?
Neem is an insecticide and fungicide that is derived from seeds of the Neem tree which grows in Africa and India. It is used as a repellent, a growth regulator, and an insect poison. Neem discourages feeding by making plants taste bad but if it is eaten, it inhibits the ability of insects to lay eggs. It also acts as a systemic because plants can take up Neem through roots and leaves. The best thing is that it is nontoxic to humans and it is biodegradable. Surprisingly, it is used in India as an ingredient in soaps, cosmetics, medicines, and even cattle feed. Neem is the least toxic chemical for use as an insecticide and works most effectively on soft-bodied insects like aphids.
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Nematodes
I've read about nematodes lately and I am confused. Are all nematodes harmful and how do you know if you have them?
No, they are not all harmful; there are nemetodes that feed on insects. Nematodes are sold for use in controlling garden problems, especially for lawns. There are over a half million species of active nematodes and if you looked at one drop of water containing nematodes through a microscope, you would be astounded: it looks like a packed bowl of noodles!

Freezing kills them and a trick I learned during to see if nematodes were a problem was to gather enough garden soil to fill two six inch pots and freeze one pot. Then try growing a root crop like radishes or small carrots in the pots. If the pot with frozen soil doesn't develop any problems then you have nematodes. Root crops are the most often attacked, especially during hot weather when nematodes are most active. There are resistant plant varieties available and certain plants, such as marigolds, inhibit nematodes.
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Nerve Plant
I read somewhere about a plant to use in my terrarium that dies if the air becomes dry…something about the plants nerves?  I thought this was fascinating but I can’t find the information about it. Do you have any idea what it is?
You are describing the nerve plant (Fittonia verschaffeltii), also known as mosaic plant. This plant has oval leaves that are a lovely shade of green and have a lacy or mosaic pattern of contrasting veins. The leaves grow upward and then spread outward. There are flowers, but so small they are hardly noticed. The small-leaved varieties are ideal for terrariums.

Use medium light, even moisture, and high humidity. Dry air will cause the leaves to drop or can even kill the plant immediately. Over watering can cause root rot, but the soil has to remain damp all the times or the plant will succumb.
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Nutsedge
What is the light-colored grass that is growing faster than the rest of my lawn? It sticks up in patches all over.     
This nuisance weed is yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus). During the summer it grows rapidly, especially when it gets a lot of water. Nutsedge is very difficult to control. If you dig one up, you will notice tubers that look like small white kernels and rather stout underground stems. This plant is a plague because it reproduces by three methods: tubers, seeds, and stems. Those underground tubers winter over, storing food; they are very drought tolerant. Pulling up this pest won’t work, as the tubers will stay behind to come back again.
Keep the grass mowed so it doesn’t form seed heads. Away from lawns you can use an herbicide. First thing in spring, start a lawn care program with weed control and keep at it.
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Oregano
Why, after three years, is my oregano overtaking the garden?
You must have some good soil that it's comfortable in. I can relate to your problem as I just dug out perhaps two thirds of a patch. Many herbs will spread after becoming established, some becoming a downright nuisance. Remove what you must, leaving a new section to re-establish. Share the extra or transplant to another area or into containers.
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Oxalis
There’s a plant that resembles a shamrock with tiny yellow flowers growing all over the place. It has to be a weed but what?
Welcome to the ‘oxalis has invaded club’. Would you believe some is grown for ornamental use? Two varieties have become a nuisance to gardeners: Oxalis stricta, the annual form, and Oxalis corniculata, the perennial. It is the perennial that causes us the most problems.

Oxalis loves a well-kept garden! Two identification factors for this weed are the leaflets, which usually close at night, and the seed pods, which resemble miniature cucumbers. These pods, which grow from yellow flowers, dry up somewhat then pop open, tossing seeds everywhere. This germination process goes on from June to October.

Because Oxalis likes to grow among the flower and in vegetable gardens, the use of chemicals is impossible. Pulling them out is the only alternative and you must do so before the stems take root as it travels. If you don’t, they will continue to cover the ground and return next year with a vengeance. Oxalis is difficult to kill. In other areas, away from plants and vegetables, an herbicide can be used but one application will not finish them off.
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Pelargoniums and Geraniums
What is the difference between pelargoniums and geraniums?
Pelargoniums are the annual plants with blooms in shades of red that we use for hanging baskets, window boxes, and patios. When first brought from South Africa to Europe in the 1700s they were called geranium and, unfortunately, that incorrect name stuck. Pelargonium means stork's bill, deriving from the Greek perlargos; the name refers to the shape of the long fruits. The flowers are divided into two halves and they have a nectary, that is, a gland that secretes nectar.

Geraniums are hardy perennial plants that bloom every summer and die back every winter. The name comes from geranos, the Greek work for crane and the fruit is shaped like a crane's bill. The fruits are split but are a little shorter than those of pelargoniums and the flowers have no nectary. Johnson's Blue is one of the well-know geraniums that are planted in perennial gardens.
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Pineapple Weed
What is pineapple weed? It's used for dying wool.
Pineapple weed (Matricaria matricarioides) is a fragrant annual weed that smells similar to pineapple and looks like chamomile. It grows in waste places and on roadsides, and it loves compacted soils - the poorer the soil the better. This plant reseeds itself twice a year - in spring and again in late summer - and the late plants keep their green throughout the winter. The foliage grows in finely divided narrow lobes that are rather fleshy and thick. Flowers appear from mid- spring through mid-fall. These flowers do not have petals like those of chamomile, just disk flowers in a cone shape. The plant never gets very large, perhaps about a foot tall, and it has a shallow taproot with fibrous growth. Originally a weed of the Pacific coast, pineapple weed is now established throughout the United States.
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Poison Ivy
We have poison ivy all over our wall, we've tried to spray it with an herbicide but it keeps coming back. Is there anything we can do?
This is the one time I do recommend an herbicide but not by spraying. Pulling the vines out is another option, but it is best to do this in spring and pull up all that you can using a cultivator or other tool to tug with. Then, using sponge brushes, paint the many pieces of plants that will remain with an herbicide. As new shoots appear, clip and paint them also. By using this method the herbicide is being directed to the poison ivy and is not drifting over the entire area as it would when sprayed. Place the vines and shoots that you remove in a plastic bag and dispose of it in the trash, because if sections of root are left around they'll start another invasion.

Please, read the label on the herbicide you chose and follow directions for mixing if necessary. Poison ivy is very difficult to control, even with herbicides, and you'll have to keep at it, but the more of the root system you can remove the easier it will become.
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Propagation with Semi-ripe Cuttings
I’m going to try and take cuttings of yews and hollies to propagate more plants, but  I’m a bit confused as to what the difference is between semi-ripe and hard cuttings.
Well, look very closely at each branch or shoot of the parent plant. Do you see where the color changes?  Usually it goes from green to a light brown. This is the semi-ripe area between soft new growth at the top and hard older growth below  where you need to cut. If you are not sure of this distinction, don’t cut. After a while you will be able to see the difference.
Once you have cut off a shoot, trim it to just below a leaf joint or node before you remove any leaves. This is very important because when you do pull off the leaves from the lower third of the cutting, there will be small wounds near the bottom of the cutting and it is through these wounds that the roots will emerge. You can also cut a sliver of bark off the base about an inch high to help with rooting. Using a rooting hormone is recommended but it’s your choice. After this is accomplished, arrange the cuttings without the leaves touching in a pot of sterile medium, sprat with water, and place a plastic bag over the pot. Use a couple of wooden skewers to hold the bag away from the cuttings. Then place the pot in a warm, bright spot but not in direct sun. Keep an eye on them and don’t let them dry out. You will know they have rooted if there is resistance when you give the stem a gentle pull. 
This method can be used for a large variety of plants, including roses.
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Pruning Shrubs
Can you please give me a list of shrubs that have to be pruned before they bloom?
Although it seems confusing, the rule is that you can prune any shrub that blooms on new wood before blooming, but those blooming on old wood have to wait until after they bloom.
The following shrubs need to be pruned before they start growing: butterfly bush (Buddleia davidii), Clethra, Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus),  smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens), and H. paniculata ‘Grandiflora’.  Be absolutely sure of what hydrangea you have because the bigleaf (H. macrophylla) and oakleaf (H. quercifolia) types are done after flowering. Also, you can prune shrubby spireas – not the bridal wreath variety – Callicarpa, beautybush, Caryopteris (sometimes called bluebeard), and repeat-blooming roses. 
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Purslane
I just returned from France where I found a green vegetable served in salads that looks just like a weed that is in my garden. It has small succulent leaves. Some call it pourpier and others referred to it as blinks. What is it?
It is purslane (Portulaca oleracea), and yes, it is a weed in our gardens. The one you encountered in France is a larger variety than our weedy one; it has tender stems and the leaves have a much better flavor. Purslane has spread all over the world. It was recorded in England as early as 1582 and in 1605 Champlain says that Native Americans on the Maine coast brought purslane to him from their cornfields. Our weed is edible, though here in America we seem to consider it a nuisance. P. quadrifida is eaten as a potherb in India.

Montia perfoliata, which grows in wet, wild places from Quebec to California, in Europe and in the West Indies, is said to be a salad maker's delight. In Europe it is called blinks, water chickweed, blinking chickweed, and water-blinks. The yellow variety (P. lutea) is planted as a vegetable in New Zealand and on the Society Islands.
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Rain Garden
A neighbor in our condominium complex wants to establish a community rain garden. What does he mean by this? He claims it will keep the bay clean.
He's right about the bay. Think of what happens when we have a lot of rain. It washes into the streets, down the storm drains, and eventually ends up in Narragansett Bay, along with all the material it can carry. Rain gardens are a way of avoiding this by keeping the water on your property where it can seep back into the ground naturally. By designing a garden or gardens that will retain the rainwater we are improving the environment with good ecological practices. This is done by creating low spots, or swales, to collect water from gutters, sidewalks, driveways, or slopes and then designing gardens—utilizing native plants—around them. These gardens can be beautiful when landscaped with stones and plants that don't mind occasional wet feet. They also create natural habitats for birds and butterflies.
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Ramps
What are ramps? I'm told they are a strong, wild onion that stinks.
Ramps are wild leeks (Allium tricoccum). They flourish in the rich soils from Canada through New England to Georgia and west to the Mississippi. These little leeks have violet leaves and resemble Lily of the Valley but have a ferocious, onion-garlic flavor. From experience I can say this little plant is a real stinker. If you're going to eat some, make sure your friends do too!
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Rock Garden
How do you go about creating a rock garden?
Well, this area is known for rocks, big and small, so perhaps you have a natural location on your property that just needs to be cleaned up for starters. Take out all the unwanted weeds and roots and refill the area with a fast-draining mix of sand, soil, and compost. An alternative is to find rocks that are native to the area and are similar in size and dig them in. Each rock must be buried so that at least a third of it, if not more, is into the ground so that they look natural and will be stable. Utilizing a slope adds the needed touch. Slant the rocks all the same way and try to keep any grain in the rocks running the same way as this make your garden look more natural. You may need to add similar but smaller rocks to form outcrops that will hold soil.

Once the basic rock formation is in place, put in plants of your choice. Not all rock gardens need to be full of alpines—native wildflowers and dwarf forms of shrubs add a lot of interest. Dwarf conifers look wonderful on a hillside rock garden, adding shades of green that blend so well with the silver-gray of stone.
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Rototilling
I was wondering what you thought about rototillers. I want to create new garden beds without much digging, turning, and chopping of sod…it’s too hard on the body. A neighbor tried to till it for me but his tiller just skipped over the ground making a mess. I have to do something even though I don’t like the noise.
Rototillers are great if they are good quality and are operated correctly. The only drawback is the more you till the soil, the finer it becomes until it blows away like powder, especially in silt-loam types of soil. Another problem is the pieces of grass that are left behind.  My trick is to use a long-handled spade and take my time.  I mark my bed with paint then use the shovel to make a deep cut along this line. Then I make cross cuts until the bed is cut into sections of one square foot or less. Next I use a cultivator, often referred to as a clam digger around here, and flip each section over. This may take me a couple of days at a comfortable pace. These sections are then left for a few days to dry out. Using a stool, or sitting on the ground, I then take each section and shake it out, sometimes pounding it on a rock or other sharp object to loosen the soil. The grass roots remaining are pitched aside for later composting. If you want to replace the soil completely remove the sections to another area, stack them upside down and cover with black plastic or a deep layer of mulch. This breaks down into another planting bed for future use.
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Rue
What is Ruta graveolens?  I’m putting in an old herb garden and this plant was on the list.
Rue is a semi-evergreen woody plant that can grow to a height of three feet or more.  This plant has wonderful blue green foliage with a slight fragrance that seems to repel insects. The leaves turn gray in winter. Clusters of yellow flowers are produced in late summer and compliment the blue green foliage. It will grow in full sun or partial shade, average soil that is well drained, and a neutral pH. Be careful when handling the leaves of this plant, some folks are allergic to the oils and develop a rash much like poison ivy.
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Saffron Crocus
I just read that the saffron crocus contains a deadly poison. Isn’t saffron a cooking spice?
There are two different crocuses. The poisonous crocus, Colchicum, also known as autumn crocus and meadow saffron, is grown as a fall-blooming ornamental. The corm and the seed contain colchicine, a very poisonous alkaloid. Therefore, these parts must be handled very carefully.  Crocus sativus is the one used for culinary purposes. The stigma—that part of the flower that receives pollen—are what is dried to use as saffron. This crocus also blooms in the fall so is often confused with the autumn crocus.

By the way, it takes over 4000 crocuses to yield the 12,000 plus stigmas needed for one ounce of saffron!
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Sage (Edible)
Is edible sage easy to grow?
Yes, it is quite trouble free and deer don’t like it! There are more than 900 species of sage but you are looking for Salvia officinalis, commonly known as garden sage or kitchen sage, a woody evergreen perennial that grows from 2 to 3 feet high. In the late spring, fragrant blue flowers appear that attract many pollinators. Sage is not fussy about soil as long as it is well drained and has pH near 6.5. Fertilizing often makes it straggly but it appreciates a good side dressing of compost. After a few years, parts of the plant will become very woody and production will dwindle.  Seeds are difficult to germinate so purchase a new plant to start.
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Seashells in the Garden
Why would someone use ground seashells in their garden?
Shells of shellfish, shrimp, crabs, and lobster contain a protein complex called chitin. When added to the soil, chitin encourages the growth of beneficial soil microorganisms that produce the enzyme chitinase. This enzyme destroys nematode eggs and larvae and, as it deteriorates, nitrogen and potassium are made available for the plants to use. When using the ground shells, there must be an added source of nitrogen because microorganisms need it to support rapid growth. Chitin will control nematodes for one year from one application. It is actually sold commercially under several brand names.
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Seed Starting
I started seeds on my windowsill last year and they got tall and floppy. What was wrong with them?
Probably nothing was wrong with the seeds, they were just unhappy about their surroundings. Seeds will produce leggy growth if they are too warm or if they have to reach for light.

The first thing to remember is that you should never start seeds any earlier than the suggested time on the package. Start with clean containers filled either with a mixture of peat and perlite or with special seed-starting medium. A hint: The plastic containers mushrooms come in are ideal if holes are punched in the bottom for drainage, just set them in a shallow tray that will hold water. Seeds need moisture and warmth to germinate but once they have sprouted, a cooler temperature, around 65 degrees, is needed. Keep the seedlings moist but not soaked and water from the bottom. Laying a piece of plastic wrap on top of the container will help keep in the moisture and heat, but once they have spouted, remove this cover.

For light, use an ordinary shop florescent lamp positioned about an inch above the growing seedlings to keep them from stretching. You don't need a fancy hanging system, just raise the light by placing the ends on bricks, cans or whatever is available. Keep your light on for 12 to 14 hours a day. When the first set of true leaves appear, you may start to feed the seedlings with a half-strength solution of a liquid fertilizer of your choice. Don't forget to harden them off (that is, getting them used to outside weather) before placing in your garden.
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Seed Storage
Why does it always say to store seeds in a cool dry place? Don't they need heat and moisture to stay good?
They need to stay dry to remain dormant; any warmth or humidity will 'wake them up' then they will start to sprout, mold will form, and you have lost the seeds. Even storing a package of seed in the refrigerator will damage them due to humidity. Always store them in a sealed container - glass is best - then they can be refrigerated. Adding silica sand, cornmeal, powdered milk, or anything that will pull any moisture away from the seeds, will help. Most seeds can survive for some time if properly stored, particularly lettuces.

Test stored seeds by selecting ten to germinate on or between wet paper towels. The number of seeds that germinate will give you a rough idea how viable they are. Some seeds need to be frozen first before sprouting (think about all the weed seeds that come back every spring!).
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Seed Stratifying
When a package of seeds says to place seeds in the refrigerator or freezer before planting does that mean just tossing in the package? I was told they had to be mixed with soil.
Mix the seeds with a damp (like a wrung out sponge) mixture of either sand and vermiculite, or just damp sand, peat, or sphagnum moss and place everything in a plastic bag. Tie or zip the bag closed and place it in the refrigerator for the required time. Check every few days to make sure the mixture isn’t drying out.  For very fine seeds, place them into pots filled with a growing medium, place these into a plastic bag, seal, and refrigerate.

You can also stratify seeds outdoors in a protected cold frame or unheated basement or garage if you can keep the temperature about 40 degrees F. Using a wooden container about 5 inches deep, start off with at least one half-inch of damp sand or peat moss, a layer of seeds, more sand etc, ending up with a topping sand or peat. Again, cover with plastic and check periodically to maintain a good moisture level.
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Shade Garden
My vegetable garden only gets about four hours of sun during the peak of summer, mostly in the morning. Are there any vegetables or herbs that I can plant that might thrive under these conditions? An alternative is to add a lot of fill and topsoil and make a raised flower garden, but I could also use recommendations on flowers and/or shrubs that would thrive under these conditions.
Several vegetables will grow well in shady conditions. Stick with your leafy greens, such as lettuce. Peas tolerate shade fairly well. Plants like broccoli will produce but the heads will be smaller.
If you turn the area into a flower garden, stick with the iron-clad shade lovers: annuals, like impatients and begonias, and perennials, like day lilies, columbines, astilbes, and hostas like these conditions.
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Shingle Cutting
What is shingle cutting?
Shingle cutting is a method of thinning using cuts that are hidden beneath overlapping foliage. It is used primarily for tapered shrubs or spreading shrubs. Using pruning shears, you lift up a branch, reach beneath into the shrub, and cut at a point where it meets a side branch or the main stem. This cut will be camouflaged by longer overhanging branches. Make the topmost branches the shortest and extend each one a bit as your trim down. The result is to create layers of shingled branches that give the shrub a natural look.
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Shipping Plants
I want to order some live plants but am a bit concerned about the condition they will arrive in. Do you have any suggestions?
The first thing is to make sure you are ordering from a reputable source. You must request a shipping date so that your plants don’t arrive at the right time for planting and not in the middle of a cold spell or worse, like my roses one year, in a snowstorm. Most companies state shipping times according to zones but some don’t realize that in our Zone 6, spring can be very fickle…they want to ship in April but we sometimes can’t plant until May. Check the guarantee policy very carefully. A good company will give a refund if plants arrive damaged. Have the plants shipped to arrive before a weekend; a box of plants being held over the weekend can become mush. There are some companies that don’t mark the shipping boxes “Live Plants” or with any other directions for that matter. A box of tomatoes that gets tossed around and placed at the bottom of a stack of boxes is another disaster. I have one recommendation which I do myself: call the company and ask questions.
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Slime Mold
There was an ugly yellowish crusty stuff growing on the mulch around my garden this summer - it looked like someone had vomited. Will it return next year and is it hurting the plant roots?
Yes, it probably will come back, and no, it isn't hurting your plants. It is slime mold. You must have spotted it as the weather cooled which causes it to crust. When the humidity is high this mold 'oozes', especially on bark mulches. As soon as the humidity drops, 'it' disappears. It can be raked away (if somewhat crusted, this will cause a small puff of spores) or washed away. When it forms at the base of a plant, it appears to be climbing up the stems. A young lad in my neighborhood is big on science fiction and he likes to destroy 'it' before 'it' covers the Earth!
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Slugs
What do you do with slugs in the garden? They ruined all the strawberries last year.
The slugs leave nasty slime trails and the snails don't even make good escargot! I can relate to your problem…there is nothing worse than picking a strawberry and finding two or three slugs attached beneath. Yuck!

There are about 40 species of slugs in the U.S., and fortunately, here in RI, we don't have those large banana-sized ones. The common garden slug is about an inch long when matured and has dark skin with a light stripe along the side. Sometimes, you can find red or yellow on the foot. They like damp places, prefer tender seedlings, love hostas and lettuce, and feed at night.

The best deterrent is a clean garden, inhibiting them of hiding places. You can also place barriers of rough materials, such as wood ash, sawdust, or ground eggshells, around, but not touching, the plants, which works very well around lettuce. Someone once suggested using a sandpaper disc around each plant; rough side may stop the slug but it would add a hiding place. Diatomaceous earth and copper strips are other recommended control materials. And there is always the old method of putting beer in shallow containers to trap the slugs.
The best form of control is an early morning slug hunt. Put pieces of roofing shingles, old boards, or anything else that they can hide under in the garden and each morning go slug picking. Flip the items over and use chop sticks, old kitchen tongs, or long-handle tweezers to pick the slugs up and drop them in a bucket with vinegar and water or salt water. By the way, diluted vinegar is an excellent slime remover.
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The containers of flowers that are on my deck have been devastated by slugs and earwigs. I’ve changed the dirt and sprayed with house and garden bug spray and it hasn’t helped. What can I do?
Well, you can start by getting rid of that can of bug spray. Then, start over by scrubbing out your containers with a solution of bleach and water and fill them with a sterile potting medium, not soil from the garden. Amendments such as vermiculite, perlite, and water-retaining crystals are helpful. Keep the containers raised off the deck by using an inverted planter saucer or a trivet to allow the containers to drain. Before putting your containers out, check the cracks between the boards on your deck as this is where earwigs love to hang out. Slugs will congregate beneath your planters (or whatever is used to raise them) during the day, so check daily or place a piece of copper stripping around the saucer or trivet. The copper will react with the slug’s slime causing kind of electric shock. Also, make sure the plants you choose are bug free. Finally, water the containers from the bottom if possible or at ‘soil’ level.
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Soapwort
There’s a plant growing in our yard along the driveway that my neighbor says is a weed called soapwort that can be used to make soap. Is this a terrible weed? We sort of like the pale pink and white flowers?
No, it’s not really that bad. I have it popping up among my perennials and to keep it under control I remove the seed heads before they burst open. Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) is also called wild Sweet William but is better known as Bouncing Bet. It is a native of Asia that has naturalized here and blooms all summer long.

As for making soap, the saponins that make bubbles are mostly in the roots though they can be from leaves and stems. The process is a bit complicated and saponins can irritate the skin.

There are also cultivated forms of Saponaria available that are not aggressive.
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Sow Thistle
We have a weed in our garden that is almost 4 feet tall with sharp, spiny leaves that remind me of chicory but the flowers look like dandelions. Some seeds have fallen and they have long hairs on them. Do you have any idea what it is?
I think you have either annual sow thistle or perennial thistle, depending on how prickly the leaf is and the darkness of the flower. Both are common weeds, and while they are a problem for us they are a source of food for beneficial insects. The perennial version has leaves that are less prickly and the flower is a bright yellow, whereas the annual has really sharp points on the leaves but a duller flower. The hairs or tuffs on the seeds allow them to be carried by the wind. You need to dig up the plants or apply a very thick layer of mulch to smother the seeds (they need light to germinate).
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Spotted Smartweed
What is the proper name for Lady's thumb? I think this is the same weed we used as pepper when playing house as children.
Yes, spotted smartweed (Polygonum persicaria) seeds did make an ideal pepper or even coffee grounds back when we entertained ourselves. Lady's thumb likes moist spots and is generally found growing in waste areas along roadsides and in old fields. Though we were used to seeing a small plant, growing perhaps eight inches, this weed can grow to three feet if left alone. The leaves, pointed at both ends, have a purplish spot in the middle and a peppery taste. (I didn't know that from experience—we never tasted them.) The seeds produced from the small pink flowers will overwinter and sprout in the spring. Because this weed was in bloom all summer and half the fall, we never ran out of make believe pepper.
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Stinkhorn
What is a stinking mushroom?
You must mean a stinkhorn, a member of the family Phallaceae. When very immature, the stinkhorn is encased in a white egg-shaped case that resembles a puffball. As it matures it swells with water and grows very fast, within a few hours actually, to a slender spike or stalk covered with a smelly slime and containing spores. Flies are attracted to the smell, resulting in transporting the stinkhorn spores to other areas. These things do stink!

There are two types and both grow in clusters on wood debris. The dog stinkhorn (Mutinus caninus) is the smaller of the two, getting to only about 4 inches or so in height. Its stalk is pinkish and resembles foam; the tip is tapered and is covered with an olive green slime. Then there is the Eastern stinkhorn (Phallus raveneli) which grows to a height of about 6 inches. The stalk is round, whitish, and foamy with a gray or olive-green head that has a ringed hole at the tip. Often there are a couple of brown rings on the stalk. When we get calls on the Hotline about these, they are often described as obscene, smelly things covered with flies. They actually smell like rotting meat.
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Stocks
I have tried to grow stocks but they don’t do anything. I’ve started seeds indoors and directly in the ground. What am I doing wrong?
When are you starting the seeds? Stock is treated as a half-hardy annual in our Zone 6. They are cool weather plants and will not set flowers when the night temperature climbs past the mid 50s and stays there. So, for success, plant the short week varieties outside at the same time peas are planted in early spring (weather permitting). You can start the longer-growing types in a cold frame in February; they like temperatures between 40 and 50 degrees F. Once all heavy frost have passed – hopefully the snow storms also—plant them in a permanent location. Most stocks will decline as the temperatures rise and sort of disappear by mid June.
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Sulfur Spray
I was told not to spray a sulfur product on the food that I’m going to preserve by canning. Why?
That’s a food service question but I can answer it for you. If a sulfur spray is applied to a food crop just before harvest, sulfur dioxide can form in the jars when they are sealed and they will burst. This doesn’t always happen but nobody wants to take the chance of having glass jars blowing up in the kitchen or in storage. Another problem is that many people are allergic to sulfur products. Also, repeated use of sulfur sprays can do damage to your crops and acidify your soil.
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Sumac
Are all sumacs poisonous?
No, only poison sumac (Rhus toxicodendron vernix) has the very dangerous oils. This shrub or tree has compound leaves that are pointed and have a smooth-edge. Tiny, cream-colored berries hang in clusters of a hundred or more. This sumac is generally found in swampy areas.

Then there are the nonpoisonous varieties: staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), winged sumac (Rhus copallina), and smooth sumac (Rhus glabra). These species prefer dryer soil. Their leaflets are toothed or jiggered; their berries are red or reddish and are in upright clusters. Staghorn sumac is most noticeable growing along old fields and road edges—the red cluster of berries is conspicuous sticking up in the air above the leaves.
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Sunscald
What is going on with my plants and vegetables whose leaves are almost white? So are my peppers and tomatoes.
It is sunscald. Those very hot temperatures of more than 100 degrees F combined with full sunlight will cause this problem. Probably not all of your peppers and tomatoes are scalded – only those that are sticking out from the foliage. The spots will dry up and turn brown. It’s an environmental problem and there is nothing you can do now. However, if next summer conditions are the same, give the plants some shade.
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Superphosphate Fertilizer
What is the difference between phosphate and superphosphate fertilizers?
Phosphate fertilizers are produced by adding acid to ground or pulverized phosphate rock. This is done so that the material will dissolve in water and release its phosphorus in a form more readily available (that is, more quickly) to growing plants. If sulfuric acid is used, superphosphate is produced having a phosphorous content (in the form of phosphorous pentoxide) of 16-21 percent; if phosphoric acid is used, then triple phosphate is produced having a phosphorous content of 43-48 percent.
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Sustainable Plants
What is sustainable planting?
Sustainable planting is putting healthy plants in the spot where they belong. Plants that are native to the region can withstand the climate and, therefore, have fewer problems with diseases and insects than non-native plants. Plants that thrive in swamps will not grow in a desert! Many cultivars have been developed from native shrubs, grasses, trees, and wildflowers (look at all the asters), that look great and require a minimum of care. Trees or shrubs that grow naturally beneath trees will not do well in the middle of a lawn. Keep this in mind and put plants in their natural habitat - it encourages the proper ecological community that is needed for optimum health of the plant and the environment.
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Tall Grass
Can we grown tall grasses, like Pampas grass, in southern RI?
No, not pampas grass(Cortaderia selloana) There are some very tall varieties of other grasses that will do very well, but some will become invasive if not kept under control. Fescue, a clumping grass with blue foliage doesn't like the hot afternoon sun. Miscanthus, another clump-forming type has varieties of every size, form, and color; some can reseed and spread into wet areas, so research the cultivar carefully. The popular zebra grass is a Miscanthus. Fountaingrass also forms clumps but may become invasive in our area. Pennisetum forms of fountaingrass are very desirable. I have P. alopecuroides 'moudry' and the purple flowers are stunning. Switchgrass is a native clumping grass that has cultivars with blue and red foliage in the fall.

Clump-forming grasses need to be divided every few years whereas those that spread by underground stems (rhizomes) - often called runners - create a dense carpet and can become invasive. Determine your planting area before purchasing plants and match the grass to your needs. If you have a nasty slope that needs help, the low- growing, runner types are perfect. For hiding a fence, look at Miscanthus. By knowing the habits of plants you want to buy, maintaining a trouble-free grass garden will be easy. Most of the grasses don't require extra fertilizer as this makes them droop, but some will need more moisture while others want some shade.
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Caution: don't plant tall grasses next to buildings if the dried foliage is to remain over the winter as it can create a fire hazard.

Teasel
What is card thistle?
Card thistle is teasel, also known as wild teasel, venus-cup and gypsy-combs. The flower resembles a thistle, hence the incorrect name. The ‘card’ part of their name came from their use for carding wool in early Colonial days. It’s the only dried plant I can have in my house that my cats won’t touch because of nasty spines on the stems and leaves. If you would like to research it, look up Dipsacus fullinum or D. sylvestris. It doesn’t grow as much in New England as it does throughout Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, and New Jersey.

The teasel plant starts as a flat rosette of leaves the first year and these die off the second season as a stem emerges. The plant produces pinkish blooms in midsummer which develop into a large, egglike head with upward turned spines that stays on the plant throughout winter. Hard to pick, they do make excellent additions to floral arrangements.
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Terrariums
I am creating a terrarium for my 8th grade school science project. I have an old aquarium already. The instructions I have say to put a layer of gravel and charcoal first then some seed soil. Can I use gravel from my yard and crush the charcoal my dad uses in the grill? What is seed soil?
Have you decided what you are going to place in this terrarium? The soil requirements need to match the plants needs. Most terrarium plants are very content with a mixture of peat and perlite or a seed starting soil. Others will require some added sterile compost. As for the gravel and charcoal, visit your local pet shop for these items. If they don’t have gravel, get fine grade contractors gravel from a home center. Mix the charcoal and gravel together before them placing in the tank.
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‘Toad’ Plant
I’m trying to find a plant that my grandparents grew called ‘Toad’ something. It was about 24 inches high and had delicate, orchid-like flowers. Can you help me?
There are a number of cultivated plants with ‘Toad’ in their name. For example: toad’s mouth, or common snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus); toad lily (Tricyrtis formosana), a member of the lily family that has spotted purple flowers and dark leaves; and toadflax (Linaria), a plant that resembles snapdragons and grows wild. I have a hunch that the ‘Toad’ plant you are searching for is the common snapdragon.
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Toadflax
What is the two-toned yellow flower that resembles a snapdragon with short leaves?  The plant is growing all along the wall that separates the neighbor’s horse field from ours.
I think you are looking at yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris), also known as butter and eggs, wild snapdragon, and flaxweed. Toadflax was introduced into gardens here in the 1800s as a perennial. It will cover large areas if left alone. As the flowers die back you will notice an egg-shaped capsule forming. This is the fruit or seedpod. Toadflax can become a nuisance as it replaces native grasses.
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Tonguegrass
What is tonguegrass?
Tonguegrass (Lepidium virginicum; also known as poor man’s pepper and Virginia peppergrass) is an annual (sometimes biennial) weed that likes places such as along roads or in empty lots, especially if the soil is dry. It starts off as a rosette of deeply lobed leaves and grows to a rather tall fuzzy stem that produces many small white flowers along with dried seedpods. The seed capsules give the appearance of a bottlebrush. Along the stem are small leaves that [when young], along with the ripe seeds, taste like pepper. This plant keeps the mature seed heads all summer into winter.
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Trees for Birds
What kind of trees can we plant to attract birds?
Besides trees that offer lots of cover, such as evergreens, there are many trees that offer food. Some that you may want to consider are: serviceberry (Amelanchier canadesis), dogwood (Cornus), mountain ash (Sorbus), holly (Ilex), crabapple (Malus), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboretum), plums and cherries (Prunus), hawthorn (Crataegus), Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and oak (Quercus). All offer berries or, in the case of oaks, acorns as a source of nourishment, especially during the winter months.

Though classified as shrubs, include the cranberry bush (Viburnum opulus) and elderberry (Sambucus canadensis). Both of these plants grow to a good height - around ten feet or better - and have abundant fruit.

Do a little research on the individual birds you wish to attract and use the results as a guideline. Enjoy your visitors!
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Tree Stump
We cut a tree down in our flower garden two years ago and it keeps sending up sprouts. How do we stop it? We can't pull it out as this would disturb all the flowers. Is there something we can spray on it?
Anything sprayed on the stump to kill it would kill all your flowers as well. So, the best thing is to outwit this 'urgency to grow' behavior of your stump by cutting and peeling back the bark. If you can remove the soil around this stump, try and get as deep as you can and remove a band of bark all the way around it. Your stump still may try and send up shoots from the roots, but if you remove these right away the tree will eventually succumb. Some gardeners suggest painting an herbicide on stumps, but there is always the possibility of plant roots absorbing the chemicals.
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Turkey Corn
What is turkey corn? In a book I just read it sounded like the author was describing a flower but there was mention of wild turkeys also - I'm confused.
If I hadn't once lived in the mountains of western Maryland, I would have been scratching my head also. Turkey corn refers to wild bleeding heart (Dicentra exima). It is a cousin to our garden variety and it grows in mountain areas from the Catskills to Georgia. It survives well in areas where the deciduous trees dump lots of leaves for winter protection. I think it's a little smaller, but it blooms all summer. Also, the flowers seem to be more purple than pink or rose and the leaves are lighter or paler. Wild bleeding heart is a wonderful sight beneath the tall trees, creating a splash of color peeking out of the surrounding green of ferns and the foliage of other wildflowers.
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Velvetleaf
There is a strange plant in the corner of my yard with fuzzy, heart shaped leaves. It is about two feet tall and has yellow flowers and a funny looking seedpod that looks like a small barrel with a flat top. Someone called it wild cotton, is that what it is?
You have velvetleaf (Abutilon theopharasti), also known as butter print, velvet weed, Indian hemp, and pie marker. The leaves feel like velvet becsue they are covered with very short hairs. The name pie marker describes the top of the seed pot, which looks like it was cut into serving wedges. Butter print derives from the alleged use of the seedpod to mark slabs of butter back in those ‘good ole days’. It blooms in late summer and it thrives in good soil. The seeds inside that pod can remain viable for up to 50 years so velvetleaf will be around for a long time.
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Veteran's Cemetary
I wanted to plant a shrub to honor my late aunt at the Veteran's Cemetery in Exeter but was told I couldn't. I also noticed signs saying Master Gardener, so decided to ask why.
This is a long story. First check the state regulations regarding the cemetery: no planting is allowed. You will also find that all the gravestones are flat in order to facilitate mowing. This is a very large area that requires constant maintenance, and like everything else, on limited funds. Also, since there is no water available for irrigation and the wind is relentless many types of trees and shrubs just will not survive.

We, the Master Gardeners, were asked many years ago to help rescue trees and shrubs that had been planted without authorization at night and on weekends. The staff was and still is very sensitive to the families of the interred and didn't wish to destroy these plantings. So we set out to establish areas where these plantings could be placed. I was one of the original team and could write pages about the problems encountered, but also about all the wonderful people we met. People finally realized what the hardships were and started donating plants that we recommended. So, you may be able to donate a shrub or tree to be planted in a planned area.

Find out from the staff what day the Master Gardener team is there and meet with them. As for the signs you saw, the original idea was to have families utilize the cemetery as a park, including walking trails winding throughout. Each year the graduating Master Gardener class created a new trail until this was accomplished. Today, the goal is trail maintenance.
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Virginia Creeper
What is the vine with the five leaves all attached at one place called? It turns red in the fall. It is covering our pasture fences and I was wondering if it is poisonous to our horses?
The clue to identification is the five leaves joined in one spot. You have Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), also called five-leaved ivy. Most of us don’t consider this a weed, though that is how it is classified. Virginia creeper climbs by tendrils that have adhesive disks at the tips, and it also creeps along the ground. It is grown as an ornamental, mainly for fall foliage. This vine will grow just about anywhere the soil is rich, whether dry, sandy, stony, in sun or in shade. As for being poisonous to the horses, you will have to ask your veterinarian.
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Water Garden
Help! We just set up a water garden in the atrium of our office building and were told to get some oxygenators for it. We have no clue what to ask for.
Oxygenators are also called submerged aquatics - they are plants. They are very important for keeping the pond water clear and providing food and a spawning area for any fish you may add. The underwater portion absorbs minerals and carbon dioxide to keep algae at bay. Despite the name, oxygen protection is a minor issue. These plants have to be planted in heavy soil inside special baskets.

A good water garden establishment can guide you in the right direction. Here are some oxygenators to consider: Callitriche (water starwort), Chara (stonewort), Ceratophyllum (hornwort), Elodea (Candaian pondweed), Fontinalis (willow moss), Eleocharis (hairgrass), Hottonia (water violet), Myriophyllum (water milfoil), Lagarosiphon (goldfish weed), Ranunculus (water buttercup), Tillaiea (swamp stonecrop), and Potamogeton (pondweed). Take this list and ask which ones are suited for your particular water garden and also ask for what you might add to it.
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Water Mold
With all this rain we’ve been having is water mold going to be a problem?
Water molds are several fungi that love wet, poorly drained soils. The fungi produce spores that swim in soil water and attack the roots of plants. They are very active in warm soils and survive as spores during cold, dry periods.

The fungi Pythium and Phytophthora cause root rots, and the fungus Phytophthora causes collar and crown rots. However, since the symptoms of these attacks are often confused with drought stress, people tend to turn on more water. So, the molds could be a problem depending on draining ability of the soil and susceptibility of the plants.
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Watering Lawns and Gardens
Why is there such hype about not using sprinklers daily to water the lawn and gardens?
The health of your lawn and gardens depend on how much water gets into the soil where it’s needed versus evaporating into the air and keeping leaves and grass blades moist and thus susceptible to disease. Sprinkling, unless the system is left on for hours at a time, dampens only the top couple of inches of soil creating shallow root systems. Not only that, it wastes water since much of it will evaporate in the hot sun. When this occurs, lawns and plants can’t stand up to the hot summer sun or periods when you can’t water.

Roots need to reach deep down into the soil, going beyond the heated surface and into the cooler layers. Water less often but deeply. Flowering plants and vegetables do better when water is applied to the soil surface and not to the top foliage. The proper amount of water really depends on the type of soil you have, but most lawns can get by with only an inch of water per week.
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Wild Buckwheat
There is a vine of some sort climbing into the ivy on my chimney. It has small clusters of thin, green leaves of varying shapes. What is it?
This is a weed called wild buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus); also called knot bindweed, bear-bind, black bindweed, ivy bindweed, and climbing buckwheat, this weed is a nuisance throughout the country. It grows anywhere the seed lands, not being fussy at all about soil type or anything else. The leaves, as you describe, are arrow- to heart-shaped and very smooth. Unfortunately, it isn’t until we see the seed heads dangling that this obnoxious pest is noticed.
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Wildflowers
What is the difference between fall and spring wildflower planting?
Assuming you mean seeding and not planting an established plant, there are pros and cons with each season. Seeds planted in the fall, often called dormant seeding, copies nature's way. Changes occur in the seeds during the winter that aid germination, such as the repeated freezing and thawing of the earth, which settles the seeds in and softens the hard-coated types. Also, plants that like cooler weather will get a jumpstart in the spring. On the reverse side, wildlife will eat many seeds, weeds could be more competitive, and some seeds will rot.

As for spring seeding, there is less loss from decay or wildlife consumption. However, warm-season seeds may delay sprouting until the weather gets warm, giving weeds a head start, so all seeds will need assistance to improve soil contact. Watering during dry spells may be necessary and mulching may be in order to aid in soil moisture retention. It seems like spring seeding is a little more labor intensive so why not toss out extra seeds in the fall and let nature take its course!
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Recently, while hiking in the woods, we saw a plant that has small bell-shaped flowers hanging upside down on it. The plant is white and has kind of an oily, waxy, velvety look and grows in clusters.
Identifying plants without seeing them is next to impossible. But, from your description and where you located them, what you might be looking at is Indian pipe (Monotropa uniflora), also known as corpse plant or ghost flower; it's a member of the heath family. It's a white, waxy plant with a somewhat scaly stem. The scales on the stem are the leaves and at the top of the stem is the bell shaped flower. These plants spring up in summer from a cluster of rootlets and they are parasitic, that is, they feed on decaying vegetation on the forest floor. They feel clammy to the touch and will often decompose and turn black when handled.

Again, I stress that seeing the plant is important for identification but there aren't too many plants in our area that fit your description. There are some wonderful wildflower guides available that are great references once you learn to use them by following the 'key' questions that are asked.
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Wild Leeks
What are ramps? I'm told they are a strong, wild onion that stinks.
Ramps are wild leeks (Allium tricoccum). They flourish in the rich soils from Canada through New England to Georgia and west to the Mississippi. These little leeks have violet leaves and resemble Lily of the Valley but have a ferocious, onion-garlic flavor. From experience I can say this little plant is a real stinker. If you're going to eat some, make sure your friends do too!
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Wild Morning Glory
There is a vine with white flowers resemblng morning glories climbing all through our shrubs and now up our house. It’s definitely not something we planted…what is it?
Sounds like bindweed—often called wild morning glory. This is a weed and a very pesky one at that. It creeps, twists, and twines along the ground and climbs up everything in the way. The problem is you don’t notice it until your forsythia or tomatoes sprout white morning glories!

Bindweed can be very hard to get rid off. It spreads by seeds, which can remain doemant for many years, and by roots (rhizomes). The roots are white, thick, and deep, and any piece that isn’t removed starts a new invasion. Learn to recognize the leaves and dig the plant out just as soon as it sprouts in early spring, making sure to get as much of that root as possible.
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Winter Injury
I just moved to Rhode Island from a warmer climate and people are telling me that the plants in my yard should be protected from winterkill. Is this true and if it is what do I have to do?
One cause of winterkill is when plants dry out—a condition called desiccation—due to high, cold winds, extreme temperature changes, or damage from ice, snow, or road salt. This happens mostly to evergreens, especially rhododendrons, but other plants are effected as well. When the ground is frozen, roots cannot take up water and when temperatures start to bounce around, as during a January thaw, plants may start to break dormancy and their leaves lose moisture that isn't replaced. You may notice that leaves look scorched or have dark brown tips, although sometimes this isn't obvious until spring. To protect your plants from this type of damage it is important to keep watering your shrubs until the ground is completely frozen and/or use an antidesiccant in late fall. The antidesiccant will coat the leaves and protect them from losing water.

Fluctuating temperatures can also cause frost heave, loss of hardiness, and sunscald. Frost heave means that the plants are pushed out of the ground, causing drying of the roots. This can be avoided by mulching your perennials to help stabilize soil temperatures. When plants lose their hardiness they can be injured but fluctuating temperatures may also stimulate the plant to start generating new growth too early in the season and the spring frost will injure them. Sunscald is the result of rapid changes in bark temperature. The sun heats the bark during the day, but if the temperature drops rapidly at night thin-barked trees develop splits or cankers, mostly on the southwest side of their trunks. If the trees have some shade during the daylight hours the problem will not be as severe. Thin-barked trees can be protected by wrapping the stem.

Ice falling from roofs often breaks the branches of shrubs beneath. (You may see many inverted V-shaped plywood covers protecting shrubs during the winter months.) Salt spray damage is always possible on pines and other evergreens along the highway because when roads are plowed, spray from the trucks can spread as much as 20 to 30 feet. Salted slush can be devastating to evergreens, so you may want to place a barrier between the road and your shrubs - the closer to the road it is, the higher it needs to be.
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Wisteria
We have had a pink wisteria for over five years now and we can't get it to bloom, although it seems to be in good health and is growing vigourously. How can we encourage it to bloom?
A few things come to mind. First, wisteria want to be in full sun with a pH of 6.5. That the plant is growing too vigorously may indicate too much fertilizer (vigorous growth and no bloom). Pruning too late in the fall cuts off flowering wood. A remote possibility is that if this is a seedling they are not reliable for blooming at all.
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Wood Preservative (Nontoxic)
I’m told there is an organic solution for treating wood that can be made at home. Do you know what this is?
There is one nontoxic preservative that is issued by USDA, perhaps this is the one you are looking for. You will need 1 oz. paraffin wax; 1 gallon mineral spirits, turpentine, or paint thinner; and 3 cups of varnish or 1 ½ cups of boiled linseed oil. Melt the wax in a double boiler, never over an open flame. Away from any heat, rapidly stir the solvent and slowly pour in the melted paraffin. Add linseed oil or varnish and continue to mix thoroughly.  Either dip untreated lumber into this solution or apply a heavy coat. Once dry, the wood can be painted.
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Woolybears
Is it true that woollybears indicate the type of winter we are going to have?
No. The banded woollybear (Pyrrharctia isabella) has been used in folk legends for a long time as a climate indicator: it is said that the wider the red band, the colder the winter, or something like that. This caterpillar can actually be all black if young enough. The width of the redish ‘band’ on this hairy crawler indicates age; the older it is, the wider the band. We seem to notice them more in the fall as they crawl around getting ready to winter over. Come spring, they will feed for a short time before pupating into a moth.
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Worm Composting
Isn't keeping worms in the kitchen for waste removal unhealthy?
Not a bit. Using redworms (Eisenia foetida) to handle kitchen waste is a very healthy habit. Why toss all those peels and cores into the trash or through a sink disposal to add burden to our already overloaded landfills and waste water systems. A couple of pound of worms can devour about five or six pounds of kitchen waste per week and their waste is wonderful for plants.

First, you have to purchase the correct worms and there are many sources available. Then, select a suitable four or five square foot container that is not too deep or narrow. Put some holes along the top of the sides for ventilation (some people put a few drainage holes at the bottom, also), cover it with screen, and set the bin on a tray. To start things off, fill the bin with shredded newspaper then dampen it thoroughly since the worms need moisture; keep the bedding damp at all times. Fluff the bedding up and keep it at a level just below the vent holes., Add a couple of handfuls of soil along with the worms and let them migrate to the bottom of the bedding. Worms don't like light so keep the bin in the light until they are down.

Feed the worms daily with all the vegetable scraps you accumulate, buried into the bedding. Don't add meat, dairy, or very oily food products. After a few months, you will end up with gardener's gold. Then, place a fresh layer of bedding at the bottom of the bin, put the worms and what is left of the old bedding on top, and the worms will retreat to the bottom if left in a lighted area. Now you can remove the castings and start the process again.
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More Commonly Asked Questions:

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