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Agave            
We have over a dozen agave plants that have been outside since the first part of June. Recently, we began to notice that they had a foul, rotten odor and some of them have flopped over. Are they getting some sort of disease?
No, not a disease, but with all the rain we’ve had your plants have succumbed to root rot.  Putting them outside during the summer is fine but remember that they are a desert plant and they don’t want excess water. Try protecting them by placing the pots on a south facing porch if possible or under an overhang.
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Anise Hyssop
Is anise supposed to have purple flowers?  I purchased an anise plant this spring and the blooms were purple instead of white as pictured.
You have anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) instead of anise (Pimpinella anisum). Anise hyssop is a perennial that keeps on coming back in the strangest places. It grows to about three feet tall with a spread of about one foot, making it ideal for a container. The leaves have a wonderful licorice, or anise, scent. This plant not only attracts butterflies and bees but repels cabbage moths! The anise is a half hardy annual that needs a long summer. It grows about two feet high and wide. The flowers of Pimpinella are flat clusters of white that bloom in summer while hyssop produces purple spikes late in summer and into fall.
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Asiatic Dayflower
There is ‘weed’ growing under our rose bushes that looks somewhat like a houseplant with small, blue orchid-like flowers. It grows a couple of leaves then stem then more leaves. It roots where the stems hit the ground. Is it a plant that can be taken inside?
I think you are looking at an Asiatic dayflower (Commelina communis). If you look carefully, you will see that it produces two blue petals and one small white petal beneath. This plant is really a weed that loves moist, rich soil and shade. It originated in Asia but escaped to become a weed, especially in our area. Often, we don’t notice it until cleaning up in the fall because it creeps along beneath our perennials.

As for making a houseplant out of it, it doesn’t like to be disturbed but you can place a pot of medium beneath a node and let it root, then experiment with it inside. The plant will disappear with frost but the seeds endure.
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Artemisia
Are white sage, wormwood and dusty miller the same plant?
They all belong to same family; they are species of Artemisia; there are hundreds of species, from absinthe to tarragon. White sage (A. ludoviciana) grows in clumps about three feet high; it has willow-like leaves and gray flowers in summer. We know it better by the cultivars 'Silver King' and 'Silver Queen'. Wormwood (A. absinthium) grows a little taller and is less clumpy; it has gray to yellow flowers that need to be removed to encourage more silver leaves. Dusty miller (A. stelleranan), from Siberia, is loved for its felt-like gray leaves.This plant will often overwinter in mild areas. There is also A. schmidtiana from Japan which forms a nice dome of silver filigree foliage a little over a foot tall and there is southernwood (A. abrotanum), a feathery, gray-green shrub with a nice scent.
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Bacillus thuringiensis
What exactly is BT?
It stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterium that is used to control many insect pests, mainly in their larval stage. Technically, it is a biological pesticide and it is available in liquid, powder, dust and granular formulations. The bacterium works by producing toxins that poison, paralyze, and kill the pest after ingesting B.t. Products with B.t don't work as rapidly as a harsh chemical would, but they do work and they are much kinder to the environment and non-toxic to humans. Also, even though caterpillars can do serious damage to plants, careful observations must be made before spraying - butterflies start out as caterpillars!

Some commercial products add extra letters or names to 'BT' to designate the particular insect they kill. For example, B.t.k. (a caterpillar selective product); it takes about a week for this product to completely do away with the cabbage chewers in my garden. Another product, B.t.i. (B.t. israelensis) will control mosquitoes and flies and B.t.s.d. (B.t. san diego) was developed to control leaf-feeding beetles. Each one of these types has a commercial name and is available at garden centers and nurseries. As with all pesticides, read and follow the directions on the label carefully.
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Basil
My basil keeps putting out flowers even though I pinch them off and the leaves have stopped growing. What is wrong?
Nothing is wrong. Basil is an annual and once it starts to flower, that’s it; all the plant’s energy goes into producing flowers and not more leaves. This is typical for many annuals as their main objective is to produce seeds. Even if you cut the basil back at this point, whatever leaves are produced won’t taste right. They may be a bit bitter and of course, smaller. Start some new plants and place them under fluorescent light for at least fourteen hours a day and use these in winter. Under the counter lights are actually great for kitchen herbs.
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Beggarticks
What are those little seeds (not the burry ones but the small dark brown pincher type) that stick to clothes called?
They are The devil's beggarticks (Bidens frondosa) - and a real pain in the britches, especially when you encounter a patch without noticing. They grow from a branching taproot to three feet tall, or more. The smooth stems are sort of square and ridged and the leaves grow opposite each other. The leaves have short hairs on the underside but the upper surface is smooth, like the stems. There can be both yellow ray flowers and orange disk like flowers on the stems; the yellow ones are often missing. The orange ones are perfect flowers, producing those wedge shaped, barbed seeds that stick to everything. They are an annual, reproducing by the seeds that hitchhike everywhere. Beggarticks like rich, moist soil and establish very quickly in damp waste areas. Learning to recognize them and digging them out is the best method for control.
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Bellflower
I’m confused about bellflowers. At a recent garden tour I saw at least five different types of plants all called bellflowers.
Actually, you probably saw a variety of bluebells—all of them are Campanula species: Capanula carpaticas, called harebell, has large, open deep blue flowers; C. pusilla has drooping flowers and is a good plant for rock gardens; C. garganica has starlike blooms; C. glomerata grows in clusters; C. medium is called Canterbury-bells; C. rotundifolia, the bluebell of Scotland, can become a pest in our area; C. persicifolia, the peach-leaved bellflower, is very tall and easy to grow, with lovely open bell-shaped blooms that are perfect for bouquets; C. poscharskyana, or Serbian bellflower, is extremely easy to grow and very drought resistant; and C. portenschlagiana, Dalmatian bellflower, is a tiny alpine form that is great for rock walls and garden edging.
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Bishopweed
A landscaper suggested that we plant bishopweed under our evergreens, but isn't that a weed?
Not exactly. Bishopweed (Aegopodium podagraria; also known as goutweed or ground elder) is a very aggressive plant that came to us from northern Europe. There is a variety called 'Variegatum' that is less likely to become a pest and which grows quickly to form a mat of cream and green foliage about a foot high. It likes the shade and can be grown right up to the trunks of trees where grass won't grow. The flowers, which resemble Queen-Anne's-lace, do nothing for the plant and are usually removed. This plant is hardy to Zone 3, so it will do well in our Zone 6. During humid summer weather, goutweed, as it is most often called, gets blighted leaves but the foliage can be mowed and fresh new leaves will rapidly return.
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Bittersweet Nightshade
I have a vine on my fence with red berries and funny leaves. The leaves are either single and fat on one end or pointed with two extra small leaves at the base. This vine also stinks. What is this?
The clue is that it has an unpleasant odor. That, plus your description of the leaves, tells me you have bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara). It is a semiwoody vine that twines over other plants or creeps along the ground, rooting at the joints. The foliage has a purplish tinge. The flowers are purple with yellow centers and look like those on the potato plant, a relative. The berries, which are red and oval, break easily to expose lots of yellowish seeds. This vine contains the solanine, a glycoalkaloid that can poison animals.
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Black Plastic Weed Control
Last year we created a new bed in our garden for shrubs. We brought in new soil, put down black plastic, then planted andromeda, hollies, rhododendrons, and azaleas. We then covered the plastic with a 4-inch layer of cedar mulch. Throughout the winter, these shrubs looked sicker and sicker. Is there some sort of disease caused by the mulch that affects all of these plants?
No. Your problem is the black plastic. Newly establish shrubs (or any plants), need water, and lots of it.  With the plastic in place, water isn’t reaching the root zone. Another problem with plastic and landscape fabric as well, is that roots head for the surface and spread out just under the barrier. Get the plastic out of there and rely on mulch alone for weed control. Hopefully your shrubs will recover.
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Blue Green Cap Fungus
I have a piece of wood that is tinted blue and covered with little turquoise blue leathery flowers that look like little saucers. I found this while walking in the woods last fall and thought that it was unusual. What are these?
Those are not flowers. They are a fungus called Chlorociboria aeruginascens, often referred to as blue stain cup fungus or blue green cup fungus. It grows through wood stains it via the threadlike roots. This fungus is found on dead branches of deciduous trees, particularly oaks, throughout most of North America. The little ‘cups’ may be in clusters or scattered along branches. Each one is sort of rubbery with a wavy edge. If you look closely you may see tinges of yellow. There are three other types of fungi in the colors of yellow, orange and red that occur in similar conditions in our area. These little mushrooms are fascinating but should never be eaten.
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Bonsai
How do I overwinter a bonsai plant?  It’s a deciduous type that has been outside since spring. Do I bring it inside or place it in the garage?
It’s not wise to bring in a bonsai that has spent the summer outside. You can place your bonsai in an unheated garage, a shed, or a cold frame, but if you must leave it outside here are a few tips. Give the plant some sort of overhead protection, such as the house eaves or an evergreen shrub. It will be protected from devastating winds if you put it against the house. Lay the plant on its side so water soaking will not be a problem. Mulch the pot with leaves, straw, or evergreen boughs to keep the pot from breaking and the roots from freezing solid. (Plants in the ground have a mass of earth as protection but container plants don’t.) Monitor for water, especially if in a shelter, and water early in the day so excess can drain before colder night temperatures arrive. If in a cold frame, watch for overheating.
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Borax
My son was being helpful and sprinkled a container of borax on my vegetable garden to get rid of the ants. Will this harm the vegetables?
Ouch! Depending on how much was in that container, yes. Borax contains boron which is usually found in soils and is an essential plant nutrient, but excess can be toxic in the environment. Microorganisms do not break down borax so it can remain in the soil for varying lengths of time depending on soil acidity and amount of rainfall. So, remove the top layer of soil, place it in plastic bags that are sealed and labeled. You may want to call the Department of Environmental Management and see if there are any regulations for disposal. You can also request a Material Safety Data Sheet on the product which will provide you with safety precautions, health information, and other data about the product.

For ant control, you want to use a mixture of boric acid mixed with sugar and water.
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Buffalo Grass
What is Buffalo Grass?
Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactylides) is a perennial, blue-green grass native to the Great Plains states. It is a low growing—usually about eight to ten inches high—warm season grass. It tolerates droughts and extreme temperatures, so it can survive under adverse conditions, but it will not grow in sandy soil, in areas of high rainfall, or where there is high traffic or shade. The blades are somewhat curly but flop over to give a lush appearance. Buffalo grass spreads by surface runners and by seed. It was one of the grasses grazed by the herds of buffalo that roamed the Plains and it provided sod for the early settlers. Unless grown under native conditions, Buffalo grass is taken over by other weedy grasses.
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Canada Fleabane
There’s a strange plant that keeps popping up in my perennial garden that must be a weed.  It’s tall with thin leaves along the stems. At the top of each stem there are hundreds of tiny white daisy-like flowers with a yellow center a multitude of thin white petals all around. The plant is about 3 feet tall. Have you any idea what this might be?
I believe you are dealing with Canada fleabane (Erigeron canadensis) or Philadelphia fleabane (E. philadelphicus). The philadelphicus species has over 150 petals and they are sometimes purplish. The leaves appear alternately, getting smaller toward the top of the stalk and are hairy, especially near the base. If you were to crush the leaves and stem you may distinguish a carrot-like smell. This is an annual weed.

Ceramic Containers
I have four beautiful ceramic pots that don’t have drainage holes. Is it a good idea to place gravel in the bottom?  I’m afraid the pots will break if they are drilled to make drainage holes.
You can use gravel if the pots are deep enough but why not locate some plastic pots that will fit into the ceramic ones. This way you can take the pots out of the containers for watering, let them drain well, and then replace them. There will be less danger of root rot this way.
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Christmas Cherry
Is Christmas cherry the same as Jerusalem cherry?
No, Christmas cherry, or ornamental pepper, is Capsicum annuum, nothing more than a chile pepper plant. It has a heavier growth with lots of small, fiery peppers in bright colors - the peppers are so hot even handling them can cause a burning sensation. The leaves can also be colorful and the plant is in full fruit around the holidays, so Christmas cherry is generally sold as an ornamental. To keep the peppers going, mist the plant daily to spread pollen. If the fruits begin to dry up, cut it back hard to force new growth.

Jerusalem cherry is Solanum pseudocapsicum. It has bright, orange-red fruit that comes into color around Christmas. To keep this plant in fruit simply shake the plant to distribute the pollen. Normally treated as an annual, it can be kept longer by severe pruning. Like the Capsicum annuum, it likes bright light and moist, not wet, soil. The fruits of Jerusalem cherry are toxic so keep them away from small children and your pets.
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Classroom Plants
My second grade class wants to grow plants in the classroom windows, like avocado, carrot and turnip tops, and sweet potato. Could you please give me some advice?
Your students have a wonderful idea, good for them. Avocado seeds are best started in water. Place the seed in a small glass with the butt end down and just touching the water, or insert toothpicks around the seed to hold it up. After roots develop, plant the seedling in a good size pot and place it in bright but not direct light; sun coming through the windows may be too strong and could scorch the leaves. Water it when the soil feels dry.

Carrots, turnips, and other similar roots are simple. Slice off to tops and place them in wet sand or water (that has to be changed daily). They will take off and eventually develop flowers and seeds. These are bi-annual plants which means the roots develop in the first year and the seeds develop in the second year. Once roots develop and the tops start to grow, place the plant in a pot filled with a growing medium.

Sweet potato may present a problem unless you purchase one from an organic supplier to obtain a non-treated tuber. Place the tuber in a long narrow jar with the wide end up and the bottom part in about an inch of water. Start this one in a dark location until roots form. You can keep growing sweet potato in water but it grows best when potted. As with the avocado, be careful of sun scorch. The potato will grow a nice vine; pinch it occasionally to make it full. It makes an excellent hanging plant.

Coastal Planting
What do you recommend for planting in a yard on the bay?
Choose environmentally safe plants, that is, those that belong in the area and won't require the use of pesticides or excess fertilizers to stay healthy. These are called sustainable plants. Everything we put in the ground ends up in our bay sooner or later but this can be minimized by planning ahead, like you are doing. Thank you.

Great shrubs include arrowwood (Virburnum dentatum), bayberry (Myrica pennsylvanica), beach plum (Prunus maritima), highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), inkberry (Ilex glabra), fuzzy deutzia (Deutzia scabra), sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), and winterberry holly (Ilex verticillata). Oh, and Rosa rugosa, that tough, fragrant rose which is a wonderful hedge and is also excellent for the sandy soils.

For trees, try red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) or red maple (Acer rubrum). As for flowers, there are many hardy perennials, such as aster, black-eye Susan (Rudbeckia serotina), yarrow (Achillea), daylily (Hemerocallis), Coralbells (Heuchera) - the list is endless, so check what grows naturally in your area and stick with those. You can even grow roses and dahlias!

Research the growing requirements of plants before purchasing them to find the ones that don't mind the wind, those that prefer a sandy soil, ones having no real pest problems, and, perhaps most important, those that won't become invasive.
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Coffee Grounds for the Garden
Do I have to compost coffee grounds or can they be placed directly into the garden?
Yes, coffee grounds can be put directly into the soil. They are also a good green material for compost because they increase nitrogen. If you are getting grounds from local coffee houses in bulk, limit the amount to 25 percent of the compost pile. Actually, the acidity in coffee grounds isn’t as bad as once thought since most of the acidity is removed during brewing. Unfortunately, you would need over seven pounds of grounds for every 100 square feet to change the pH of soil just a smidgen. 

Coffee grounds can be also be used to make a liquid, fast-acting fertilizer by placing one half pound of grounds into a five-gallon bucket of water and letting it sit outside to warm up and brew for a few hours. Another use is as a slug repellant; just encircle the area where slugs are a problem with the grounds.
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Composting
We want to start composting. Can you give us some hints?
You can purchase special composting bins but this isn't necessary. Start with a location out of the sun and where you can prevent excess amounts of water from getting into the pile - beneath an evergreen tree is a good spot. To keep your pile from scattering construct a bin from fence material, wooden pallets, or anything else that will keep the material contained. Your container can be round or square, have an open side or enclosed all around. You may also want to make a couple of 'holding' bins to keep material handy for adding or for working up a second compost pile.

To begin your pile, place some rough material on the bottom such as corncobs, thick twigs, or even a thick later of straw. Then add a layer of material like dried leaves, which have a high carbon content (brown material), a layer of fresh grass clippings, plant cuttings, or kitchen waste, which are high in nitrogen (green material), and cover these layers with about an inch of soil. Water until the pile is like a damp sponge and you have started!

Please, don't put meat or dairy products into your kitchen scraps. Coffee grounds, egg shells, and tea bags are okay. Continue to add layers until the pile is about two feet high. At this point, it's advisable to turn the pile over before continuing or get two piles going. The more you turn, the faster the breakdown occurs. If your pile gets too wet, turn in some dry peat or sawdust to help absorb the water. When the mixture gets dark brown and crumbly it's ready for use. Sort or sift out any material that has not broken down and place into the next pile to finish.
Hint: A pile that can't breathe will smell, as will a pile with too much green material! If it smells, add brown material. If the process is not progressing, add some green material. And remember, keep it moist.
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I added weeds to my compost pile and they grew instead of rotting.
Did you chop them up before adding to the pile? Were the weeds added before they flowered and produced seeds? Did you put them on top of the pile instead of mixing them in so the heat would destroy them? Is the compost pile getting hot enough?

When you add material such as weeds to a compost pile, you have to dry them out to use as a carbon, or brown, material. Plants that spread by roots or runners especially need to be dried first. If something does grow in the pile, chop it up and bury it back in, treating it as a nitrogen, or green, material. Remember, a compost pile needs about 75% brown to 25% green materials, plus water and air to make compost. Too much water, not enough air, and too much green material and your pile will not 'cook' properly…and it will smell foul. Be sure to turn the pile about once a week or when you add larger amounts of materials.
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Container Gardening
Is it necessary to change the soil in my planters each spring?
It would be a good idea to change the soil every spring as there may be pathogens or pupa that have overwintered in it. Soil or a potting medium changes structure after holding plant materials; it loses lightness and compacts so that air and water start having difficulty penetrating to new roots. Also, salts may be present from past fertilization that hasn't been flushed out and old plant material left behind from last year impedes new growth. So, dump the contents into your flower garden, mix in well, and refill those containers—or use fresh packaged potting soil.
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Corn Gluten
I just read about using corn meal to kill weeds. What can you tell me about it?
Actually, what is being used is corn gluten, a by-product of milling. It works by drying up plant sprouts as soon as they emerge. The seed cracks open and the gluten goes to work. In other words, it has to make contact with the weed seeds. It is a good organic material to use as a crabgrass pre-emergent. If you have established weeds, forget it. In fact, corn gluten is also high in nitrogen so it really helps established weeds grow more! The soil has to be warm and bare of growing vegetation for it to work; the application must be repeated every six weeks or so. The good thing is that it is safe for the environment.
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Cornflower
We have a perennial cornflower plant that everyone says won't come back next year…but it's three years old and still growing strong! Are we calling it by the wrong name?
Yes and no. You might have Centaurea montana, which is called bachelor's button as well as cornflower. Centaurea cyanus, the real cornflower, is the annual version that only comes back each spring by reseeding. Centaurea montana, the perennial version, can be purchased in various shades of blue, and there is also a pink variety.

Identifying plants without a picture or seeing them growing is a problem; too many plants are called by the same name. In fact, chicory (Cichorium intybus) is often called cornflower. Still another name for C. cyanus is bluebonnet but you can also be referring to lupines (Lupinus hartwegii) or even Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica).
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Creeping Bellflower
I’m curious about a plant called creeping bellflower. Can you tell me something about it?
Creeping bellflower (Capanula rapunculoides) is also known as harebell, creeping campanula, and creeping bluebell. This perennial came from Europe and Asia many years ago; it is a garden plant that has gone wild. Creeping bellflower has lower leaves that are heart shaped but the upper leaves are more like lances along a tall stalk. The flowers are light blue or purple along the top half of this stalk, growing from axils of upper leaves; they most often grow along one side of the stalk. Not being fussy about shade, sun, or soil, this garden pest grows everywhere; it spreads by a creeping root system and also by seeds. I battle this pest continuously and have learned to recognize the early growth so I can give it the old heave-ho.
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Creeping Thistle
We live in a low area next to Interstate 95 and after they did roadwork a few years ago, this area became full of a thistle. Was it from the hay bales they staked along the road edge?
Most likely. Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense; also known as creeping thistle) is what you have. It's very rampant in our area because of its growth habits. These plants grow to about four feet high and have prickly leaves that are smooth on the top side but somewhat fuzzy underneath. Flowers occur from June to November, creating seeds that take off in the slightest breeze using the attached silky hairs as a parachute. These seeds germinate all throughout the summer - very quickly, usually within a couple of weeks. The rhizomes grow up to fifteen feet from the main stem and sprout so rapidly that there is new bloom within a couple of months. Canada thistle can survive for very long periods, even years, of drought and other adverse conditions. These plants will grow in all types of soil but is very problematic in heavy, wet soils like old worn out fields that receive the runoff from the highway.
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Curly Dock
There is a tall weed growing in my flower garden that has thin leaves that are fluted like the edge of a pie crust. The stem is brown and rather tough to break. At the top it looks like there are a million stalks covered with seeds. It also has a taproot that looks like a skinny carrot. Is it something that should be removed?
You have described curly dock (Rumex crispus), a weed whose seeds can be viable for up to 75 years! Each plant produces over 60 thousand seeds, so I’d get rid of it right away! The seeds do need light to germinate but if you have done any digging in the garden, some were probably brought to the surface. This is a biannual weed: a rosette of leaves is produced the first year but during the second year the plant grows tall. The seeds at the top turn brown as they ripen so get rid of the plant before they reach that stage. This weed is a common pest in damp areas and low spots. The seeds are toxic to poultry and the plant is an alternate host for many vegetable viruses.
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Deer Manure
Can the deer droppings around my shrubs that the deer ate be used as fertilizer in the vegetable garden?
You can rake them up and put them in your compost pile, but don’t use them as a fresh fertilizer. Like all manures, deer droppings have be heated to kill pathogens and a good working compost pile will do just that.  A Federal regulation says that manure has to be composted by heating to 130+ degrees F. If this can’t be accomplished in your compost pile, then don’t use the compost until the following spring. If it is used, veggies that don’t touch the ground, like staked tomatoes and peppers, can’t be picked for 90 days afterwards, the earliest allowable harvesting.  Root crops and greens would go to seed before you could pick them! Maybe the smartest thing to do is use this compost in the flower garden.
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Dog Damage to Hedges
Sections of the juniper hedge around our yard have brown, dried foliage about a foot up from the ground. This isn’t from salt damage as this problem is on the inside of the hedge, not where the snow plows or traffic can throw stuff up on.  Besides, the problem started this past fall.
You are probably looking at damage caused by dogs. Do you have a male dog? Is there one or two in the neighborhood that roam about? Dogs generally urinate in the same spot by habit and other dogs will use the same spot once they smell it. Salt in the dog’s urine burns the foliage, and with repeated visits to the same spot, the branches will eventually die. You may have to protect your hedge which is difficult because nobody wants a hedge and a fence together. A low electric fence will work as long as everyone knows it’s activated.  If the dog is yours, and your yard is big enough, you might consider the invisible fence system. Spray-on repellents can work but you will have to spray the entire hedge and constantly repeat the spraying.  
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Dried Flowers
Can you give me a list of annuals I can grow and use to make dried flower arrangements?
Gosh, a lot of flowers can be dried but some of the easiest annuals are; statice (Limonium), strawflower (Bracteantha bracteata), cockscombs (Celosia), baby's breath (Gypsophila elegans), globe amaranth (Gomphrena globosa), pincushion flower (Scabiosa stellata), moneywort (Lunaria annua), larkspur (Consolida ajacis), bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis), love in the mist (Nigella damascena) and rose everlasting (Helipterum roseum).

If you have a dehydrator, many other annuals can also be preserved though some will fade a bit. You may wish to try Swan River daisy (Brachyscome iberidifolia) and pot marigold (Calendula officinalis). Immortelle (Xeranthemum annuum) flowers dry very well, holding their shape and color. Try experimenting with various flowers and drying methods. Oh, and don't forget to include some grasses.
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Drought-Tolerant Plants
What flowering plants will tolerate a limited water supply?
For one thing, native wildflowers seem to do very well, many perrenials are drought-tolerant, and annuals that reseed themselves are tough. Here are some choices: bigroot cranesbill (Geranium macrorrhizum), daylilies (Hemerocallis), sea lavender (Limonium latifolium), peonies (Paeonia), tickseed (Coreopsis), goldenrods (Solidago; with a number of varieties that don't resemble the wild form at all), sage (Salvia), coneflowers (Echinacea), blanket flower (Gaillardia), black-eyed-Susan (Rudbeckia), asters, blazing star (Liatris), spurges (Euphorbia), ironweed (Veronia lettermannii), Adam's needle (Yucca), and all varieties of sedum are hardy perennials that can stand up to miserable conditions, including drought. For annuals or biennials, try marigolds, strawflowers, statice, Portulaca, Salvia, Verbena, cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), African daisy, pot marigold(Calendula), spider flower (Cleome), and Cosmos.

By no means is this a complete list. Look around and you'll see daisies, milkweeds, butterfly weed, Joe-Pye weed, sunflowers, and all types and ornamental grasses. Most nursery catalogs indicate when a plant tolerates or prefers dry conditions and this should be your guide. This is really sustainable gardening as the plants chosen have fewer problems and need less in the way of insect or disease control, making for a healthy environment.
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Eastern Black Nightshade
What is poison berry? There is a plant growing in our yard that our mailman said is poisonous and we should get rid of it. He called it poison berry.
Yes, Eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum) is poisonous, especially to livestock. Nightshade is spread by birds eating the seeds and it can be found both in poor, sandy locations and in rich soil, often with other solanaceous plants, such as tomatoes and potatoes. The leaves are slightly hairy, resembling maple leaves at the base before elongating and ending in a point. The flowers are in the form of a yellow star and the fruits are black berries that are full of seeds.
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Edelweiss
Can we grow Edelweiss here in Rhode Island?
Yes and no. Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is an alpine plant for dry rocky places and can’t tolerate excess moisture or acidic soil. It’s a short-lived plant to start with. Edelweiss can be grown in containers that mimic it’s natural preferences. The flowers in summer are in tiny yellow clusters surrounded by whitish bracts, making them look like tiny white starflowers from a distance. These are very tiny plants—about 6 or 7 inches high—but sometimes (rarely) up to a foot tall. Remember, they are an alpine plant and our hot, humid summers are not what these plants need.
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Espalier
I've seen fruit trees grown against the walls of homes in the southwest, can we do that here?
Yes, it's called Espalier. The fruit trees are trained to grow flat against a wall or fence by selective pruning. If using a wall, have wires installed about 18 inches apart and running horizontally from 6 to 10 feet across. Height of the espalier is determined by the height of the wall. Also, for the health of the tree, keep the wires at least 6 inches away from the wall.

Plant the tree in the middle and cut off the central stem just below the height of the first wire at 18 inches. This will force new shoots to appear below the cut. As the season progresses, allow only three new shoots to develop. The ones on each side are tied to the wires while the middle shoot becomes the new center trunk. Repeat this procedure until all the wires have branches trained to them and when you have accomplished your goal prune constantly so no new growth is formed. This can also be done with wires stretched between poles and it is often easier to maintain the fruit trees using this method.
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Euonymus Bonsai
I’m learning to do bonsai and was told to get a euonymus plant. Isn’t this plant a climber?
The euonymus known as winter creeper is the climber. You need a Japanese euonymus (Euonymus japonicus). This is a very easy plant to care for as long as it receives enough moisture, indirect bright light, and average humidity. It also likes a temperature between 55 and 70 degrees F. The root system of E. japonicus is small and tolerates pruning very well. Once you establish this plant as a bonsai, give it monthly feedings during the summer and slow it down to every six weeks in spring and fall.
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Ferns
What ferns will grow in an area that gets very little sun each day? I have an area between my lawn and the woods where ferns would be ideal.
As long as the soil in that area is 'woodsy', that is, full of humus, there are quite a few ferns that should do well. For xample, wooly lip fern (Cheilanthes lanosa), hay-scented fern (Dennstaedetia punctilobula), and ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) will do great without a lot of moisture. For damp areas choose sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), the cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), interrupted fern (Osmunda claytoniana), royal fern (Osmunda regalis), and New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis). As long as their cultural requirements are met, all of these ferns will do fine with little care in our Zone 6 climate.
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Can I prune my ferns down to the ground before winter?
This really isn’t advisable. Ferns don’t need pruning; just removing dead foliage is sufficient. This should always be done in the spring because leaving the fronds on all winter protects the crowns. Then, in early spring, very carefully remove them one by one so any emerging growth will not be damaged.
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Fertilizer Composition
What exactly are those numbers on fertilizer bags?
The numbers on fertilizer bags indicate the primary ingredients; it is the national standard. The first number represents the amount of nitrogen (N) for lush, green leaf growth; uses too much of it and you will get large green plants without flowers or fruits! The second number is the amount of phosphorous (P) which stimulates flower and fruit development and enhances the root system. The third number is the amount of potassium (K), which is used by plants for general health, strength, and flower vigor.

This numerical quantity is actually the percentage. So, a bag of 10-10-10 fertilizer would contain 10 percent of each ingredient. To figure out the pounds of each element in the same bag, multiply the total weight of the bag, say 50 lbs. by .10 (or 1/10) for each ingredient. Here's the calculation: 50 lbs. x .10 (repeat for each element) means there is a total of 15 lbs. of nutrients, 5 lbs. of each, in that bag. If a 50 lb. bag had a reading of 8-4-24 there would be 4 lbs. of nitrogen, 2 lbs. of phosphate, and 12 lbs. of potassium or a total of 18 lbs. of nutrients in the bag (50 x .08, 50 x .04, and 50 x .24).
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Field Dodder
There is a vine with dried structures on it but no leaves. The twining part is a rusty color and it is thin. The vine, which is covering my sweet pea trellis, is something I’ve not seen before. What is it and where did it come from?
Well, it’s not new…it’s field dodder…but this year it is rampant. Most of us don’t even notice it until the leaves of the host plant have dropped off. It’s a parasite plant. Stems are thread-like and twining, while the leaves are thread-like scales. The thread-like stem attaches to green plants. Once this parasitic plant attaches to its host, the root-like system disappears and the plant becomes wholly parasitic.  It uses tiny suckers to attach to the host plant. There are small white, five lobed flowers that ripen to a tan patch of seeds and that is what you are seeing now (i.e., “the dried structures”). When you pull it out it might be wise to pull out any plants it is growing on. Next spring, watch for it and yank it out before it flowers. It’s going to take a few years of vigilant weeding to get it under control. 
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Flowering Seedlings
I bought some flower seedlings at a local grocery store last spring and soon after being planted they died, even though they had water and the soil was good. What did I do wrong?
You bought them in flower. Once a seedling is in flower, it won't adapt to being transplanted into a garden as well as a smaller one that hasn't budded yet. When buying seedlings - flowers or vegetables - check the root system. Pop it out of it's cell or pot and see if the roots are tangled up. If so, don't buy this plant because those roots won't expand into their new soil. If there are only a few roots and none growing through the drainage holes, it will be a good plant to purchase, provided it doesn't have other problems.

The smaller the plant and root system, the better the plant will adapt to new surroundings. Look for crisp green leaves, free of holes, without any yellowing, and short stocky stems; long skinny stems are a sign that the plant hasn't had a good start. Check the soil of all the flats of seedlings; if any is dry it means the plants have not been properly cared for even though there may be no signs of wilting. Inspect the stems and leaves, under and over, for any signs of insects, like webbing or a cottony material. Buy from garden centers that grow their own seedlings for the best results. And, make sure they have been hardened off before being placed for sale; plants going from greenhouse to garden are not going to make it.
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Fountain Grass
What can you tell me about Pennisetum alopercuroides, especially one called 'Moudry'?
This plant is commonly known as fountain grass. Barely hardy in Zone 6, this grass is native to much of eastern Asia and Japan. It is the most commonly grown of fountain grass in our area, probably because it is very easy to grow in either sun or light shade. It prefers moist soil but will hang in there during a drought.

'Moudry' is a neat mound that grows to a height of about two feet. It has very dark purple flowers in late summer or early fall. Also, since it self-sows very easily you may wish to cut off the flowers before seeds form. This cultivar was an introduction by the National Arboretum in Washington from seeds brought here from Japan.
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Galls
What are galls and do they have insects in them?
Galls are an abnormal growth that is produced as a result of a local irritation or injury to plant tissue. This could be caused by an insect, bacteria, viruses, fungi, chemicals, or an environmental injury. Each gall could take a page just to explain.

Galls can develop on leaves, stems, or roots. They can contain the eggs of insects or the insect itself. Galls can be named for the occupants, as in aphid galls, adelgid galls, psyllid galls, galls from flies, mites, and wasps, plus a host of others. Other galls are named for the plant on which they are found, such as the rose gall (caused by a wasp). Galls can be all colors and shapes depending on the host and cause. The most commonly known form of gall is the large brown gall from oak trees that produces a puff of powder when you step on it.
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Garden Journal
I read that it is important to keep a garden journal. Is it really necessary?
In order to stay ahead of pests, achieve your goals, and remember what’s planted where… yes, it is important. Here are some examples of items for your journal. If you made note of when a certain pest arrived or how much damage it was doing, you will know when to prepare for it next year. Making note of when plants bloom will help you plant for a continuous display of flowers. Marking down when you feed your plants, especially if using a combination systemic pest control and fertilizer, is also very important because this needs to be done on a regular schedule. Make note of any plant that isn’t doing well and any reasons you think may be causing the decline. Write down ideas as you think of them; ideas and solutions often come to us at the oddest times! Use these notes to plan ahead. By doing this you will find that gardening chores become easier, potential problems are avoided, and you will enjoy your gardens so much more.
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Gardening Books
Can you recommend some books for gardeners?
I don't like to recommend any particular garden book but I will offer the following advice. Always remember one thing about any garden book: make sure the book contains information you can use. Don't buy a book by just looking at the cover or even from reading a description in a catalog. Pretty pictures are just pretty pictures. Don't buy one because it's on sale if it isn't going to further your gardening skills. Look for information that pertains to your area and your particular interests. A book about desert gardening is of no use to a New England gardener unless it is used for research. Gardening encyclopedias and reference books are a must and if you are a serious gardener, books on botanical nomenclature and plant terminology are a necessity. Look at the specialty books - books that offer valuable information on one particular subject. A book on individual plants, such as roses or moss might be well worth a purchase if that is your interest. Find the ones that suit your needs, read them…and don't let them get dusty.
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Geraniums and Pelargoniums
What is the difference between pelargoniums and geraniums?
Pelargoniums are the annual plants with blooms in shades of red that we use for hanging baskets, window boxes, and patios. When first brought from South Africa to Europe in the 1700s they were called geranium and, unfortunately, that incorrect name stuck. Pelargonium means stork's bill, deriving from the Greek perlargos; the name refers to the shape of the long fruits. The flowers are divided into two halves and they have a nectary, that is, a gland that secretes nectar.

Geraniums are hardy perennial plants that bloom every summer and die back every winter. The name comes from geranos, the Greek work for crane and the fruit is shaped like a crane's bill. The fruits are split but are a little shorter than those of pelargoniums and the flowers have no nectary. Johnson's blue is one of the well-know geraniums that are planted in perennial gardens.
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Grip Trench
What is a grip trench? I’ve been reading about how to propagate shrubs and creating a grip trench is mentioned?
A grip trench is a slit made by inserting a spade vertically into the ground. It helps to move the spade back and forth to open up this trench to insert the hardwood cuttings. Once these cuttings are in place, step down on both sides of the slit to close the soil against the twigs.
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Ha-ha Fence
What is a ha-ha fence? Is it where stumps are piled in fields?
A ha-ha is a deep and wide ditch dug in such a way that it cannot be seen unless you are almost on top of it. They were very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries around manor houses. By constructing a ha-ha, the view from the windows of these homes wouldn't be obstructed. Livestock were seen at a distance but couldn't get into the nearer yards or gardens. Guess you would say it was an invisible fence.

Just as New Englanders utilized excess rocks for walls, in many areas of the country stumps from cleared areas are piled to create barricades. After the trees had been cut for lumber, the stumps were pulled and why bother building a fence when the stumps did the job! Usually, after the stumps start to disintegrate, wire fencing is installed.
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Hawaiian Lei Flowers
We just returned from Hawaii and I’m trying to find out about the flower they used to make the leis. Anything you can tell me would be appreciated.
They are flowers with a heavenly fragrance, right? It is Plumeria rubra, a shrub native to the islands. Having lived there for awhile, and having one in my yard, I know how difficult they can be. Plumeria needs a long day to grow; short days of winter put them into dormancy. Also, the temperature needs to be around 60 degrees F or more.

Tip cuttings are often available at flower shows and at specialty flower shops. Dip the cut end into rooting hormone then place it into a mixture of perlite and peat that is kept damp all the time but not soaking wet. Give it lots of light, at least 14 hours a day, and wait. If all goes well, you should see flowers within a year. Don’t get discouraged, it takes a long time.
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Hedging
We just recently moved into the carriage house portion of a very old estate. Along our border with the larger house there is, or was, a hedge of some type with upright metal hooks. I asked an elderly neighbor about them and he said they were part of the pleaching, plashing, and hedging. I don't want to appear stupid but what is he talking about?
Well, those are terms we just don't hear anymore. They all refer to the method that was used way back when for creating nice, thick privacy hedges. It is a way of creating a hedge by bending down and interweaving branches to create density (i.e., plashing), and the training of branches and twigs of trees and shrubs to form a windbreak, (i.e., pleaching).

Now, what about those metal hooks? They were used where stems of shrubs were cut part way and bent at an angle to be interwoven between the stakes. Hedgers, who were the special gardeners who did all this, were very proud of their craft. Today, we just shear the shrubs with trimmers to create new growth.
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Herbs
I want to plant herbs that have a light gray or silvery color. Can you suggest any?
Yes, I can name some for you. You said herbs, so I'm assuming you mean plants for an herb garden. There are many other annuals and perennials that will fit into this color group as well.
Herbs of interest are: yarrow (Achillea) 'Moonshine', curry plant (Helichrysum), lamb's ears (Stachys byzantina), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), rue (Ruta graveolens), thyme (Thymus), artemisia (Artemisia species), santolina (Santolina chamaecyparissus), and horehoud (Maarrubium vulgare).

For added interest try dusy miller (Senecio), silver lace (Tanacetum ptamrmiciflorum), licorice plant (Helichrysum) and bachelor's buttons (Centaurea). Erygium (sea holly) has silvery foliage and don't skip cardoons (Cynara cazrdunculus) with gray foliage that is out of this world.
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Herbs in Containers
I purchased 240, 4-inch clay pots to give away as favors at my wedding in September. I was thinking to plant rosemary, thyme, sage, basil, or other herbs but wasn’t sure how to go about doing this. When is a good time for me to start the plants?
What a nice idea! Here are a few things you may want to think about. Rosemary has a poor germination record and basil is fussy, often looking ragged if not kept pinched. Then there is thyme. Not only is it a perennial that can be enjoyed for a long time, but it has a wonderful aroma. Creeping thyme would be ideal as the leaves are tiny and it would tumble over the sides of the pot. 
I have a suggestion, start the seeds in cell packs instead of your clay pots because the constant watering may cause staining or they even get mold. Start them 6 to 8 weeks before transplanting into the clay pots and allow another 2 to 3 weeks for them to establish. If you start the seeds in June you should have some lush pots of thyme by September. 
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Herbs to Attract Bugs
What herbs can be used to attract the good bugs to my garden?
A lot of them, but they will only help if planted among your veggies or flowers. Both German and Roman chamomile are great. You can also try dill fennel, parsley, nasturtium, and tansy. Any of the spearmints will work well if they are contained – these herbs spread like wildfire. Lovage is known to provide housing for ground beetles.
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Horsetails
There is a stream at the edge of our property and some strange plants are growing along the edge in the gravel and sand. One is a stalk about 2 feet high with what reminds me of a baby pineapple on top and the other has loads of needles along the stem like the spines of an umbrella with one set above the other. 
You have horsetails (Equisetum). Species are perennial pests once they become established. That “pineapple” is full of yellow spores that will aid in reproduction. The bushy one, a hollow stalk with whorls at each joint, will die with the first frost, but the thick roots survive winter without difficulty. To control horsetails, dig up the roots because these plants propagate mainly by roots spreading underground. Because the plants grow next to streams, chemical controls are not advised.
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Humus
What is humus? I hear the word all the time on gardening shows but they never say what it is.
Humus is the substance created by the slow decomposition of organic matter by bacteria and fungi which break down vegetation into elements that plants can readily utilize. Humus is the most important component of our soils. It improves soil structure as well as water intake and holding capacity, and it gives soil the ability to resist erosion.

When we add compost to our gardens it is the creation of humus that makes the soil fertile. Often confused with organic matter, humus has no definite shape or structure but is a dark, spongy substance that is often called the 'life' of the soil.
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Hybrid Seeds
I planted some large orange marigolds from seed saved from the year before and some didn't come up while others were nothing like they should have been. Why?
That large orange marigold was probably Orange Lady, one of the Lady Hybrid series and the seeds will not give you the same plant as the parent. Hybrids are basically mongrels. Created by cross breeding or pollinating two parents of the same family, it's a mixture of characteristics from the two plants. One might be chosen for color and another for hardiness. The seeds from the progeny will recreate a grandparent or ancestor but not the same plant as the parent, or it will not germinate at all because they are sterile. If the seeds are not sterile, it's amazing what grows.

Saving seeds from flowers and vegetables used to be the only way to garden. Today, plant breeders have created larger, hardier and all around better plants by hybridizing. Make notes of the performance and beauty of plants grown from seed and keep this information with the saved seed package. Then you will know the proper one to order again.
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Hydroponics
What exactly is hydroponics?
It means growing plants in water without soil. Of course, the water has nutrients added. The word hydroponics comes from the Greek hydro meaning water and ponos meaning work. Plants are either suspended in a nutrient solution or they are grown in a soil-free medium, such as sand, perlite, or gravel. Lettuce, tomatoes, and other greens are produced this way by many growers. It doesn’t necessarily yield any more crops than conventional methods but it is labor saving. It was originally thought that using hydroponics roots don’t have to spread as far to reach nutrients and, therefore, plants could be placed closer together for greater yields.
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Insect-Eating Plants
How do plants like the Venus flytrap eat insects?
Insectivorous plants, such as the Venus fly trap (Dionaea), pitcher plants (Sarracenia), sundews (Drosera), bladderworts (Utricularia), butterworts (Pinguicula), and others, have various ways of trapping and digesting insects. They really don’t ‘eat’ them but rather utilize the decayed insect as a source of nutrients. Most of these plants grow in boggy conditions where nitrogen, in particular, is always lacking.

All insectivorous plants have modified leaves, usually with downward facing hairs, that stop the insect from escaping once lured into the trap. Some leaves close over or roll up around the insect, thereby preventing escape, while others drown the insect or use a ‘glue-like’ formula to hold the prisoner firm until it dies. Once this happens, the plant manufactures juices that dissolve the insect so the plant can absorb the necessary nutrients.
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Invasive Plants in Rhode Island
Can you tell me some of the invasive plants in Rhode Island?
Yes, of course. Let’s start with Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), porcelain vine (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata), multiflora rose (Rose multiflora), Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), burning bush (Euonymus alatus), non native honeysuckles (Lonicera morrowii and Lonicera bella), common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Japanese knotweed (often called Japanese bamboo; Fallopia japonica), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria).  As for water plants, stay away from fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana) and watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum).
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Will you please tell me why plants like Dame’s Rocket and the white wild roses are considered invasive? 
Invasive plants are those that are not native to the region. They often grow faster and taller, and shade out other, desirable plants. They are overbearing and free of diseases and insects. Often they appear sooner and stay later than native plants, thus taking all the nutrition from the ground and using up the space. Most invasives reproduce easily; the fleshy fruits are eaten by birds and so seeds are dispersed. Both of the plants you asked about meet all the criteria for invasives.
The government classifies an invasive as a plant that is not native to the ecosystem and when established is likely to cause economic, environmental, and even human health harm. 
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Inverted Sod
We are going to put in new flower beds this spring but don’t want to keep the grass that we chop up. If we dig the grass out in squares can we reuse them elsewhere other than for lawn?
Absolutely. My first raspberry bed was inverted sod from an excavation. Cut the grass into manageable squares (usually a foot or less on a side) about 6 inches deep. Turn them over and let them dry for a few days. Next, if you wish to retain the soil, shake each square to loosen the soil, then knock it off with a trowel and toss the grass with roots into a container. Let these dry out in the sun and toss them into the compost pile. Or, if you are going to use new soil, place the squares in a wheelbarrow or container then stack them upside down in an out of the way location. Once stacked, cover them with black plastic and let them compost. After a few weeks you may be able to poke a hole in the plastic and plant something, making sure that you water directly at the stem area. Any holes in the plastic will encourage grass to grow again.
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Ivy Topiary
I have had an ivy topiary plant for two years now, kept in an east window. Lately the older leaves are starting to crumple and turn brown but the vines are still growing and producing leaves. It gets plenty of water and I don’t overfeed it. I created this from ivy growing along my wall. Any suggestions?
As an ivy vine grows the older leaves dry up and fall off while new growth continues. Vines will root where they touch the ground. Used in a topiary it is unable to do this so the old leaves that dry up have no replacement. You need to train the new growth to cover the old. You may wish to start over again with new soil and a slow-release fertilizer, pinning the new growth onto the medium every so often to create more coverage.
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Japanese Knotweed
How can I get rid of Japanese knotweed?
You have to be very aggressive! Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum; also know as Japanese bamboo and rice cane) is very difficult to eradicate. It is a weed that was brought to this country as an ornamental plant and has escaped to march wherever it wishes by means of suckers and underground rhizomes —it spreads extremely fast.

The tops may be killed by frost each year but the rhizomes keep coming back every spring. The problem is these rhizomes are very tough and go deep into the ground and the common methods of killing weeds just won't work. The more one tries to kill it, the more it comes back with a vengeance! Every time you cut it back, you're just pruning it. However, with persistence and weed killers it can be done.

It needs to be sprayed with an herbicide during the summer and then cut down. You may have to repeat this a second year, then you'll begin to win the long war. The herbicides are going to be chemicals like Round-Up or Brush-Be-Gone. After you see some browning of the plant, cut it down. Never put a rototiller to it; every small piece of root that you chop up can turn into another plant.
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Is it feasible to hire a backhoe to dig out a vast amount of Japanese knotweed?  I’m sick and tired of digging it out every year and Roundup doesn’t do the job.
That’s a good question. Because the roots of Japanese knotweed go so deep and travel so far, using a backhoe would make removal easier but the weight of that machine can really do damage. For instance, where are your water, sewer, power, and gas lines. Think about whether you have to move the backhoe over any of these services and then consider the following. A heavy machine will compact soil, resulting in restricted plant growth due to lack of air and water. Then, what if the backhoe digs into your tree roots? You are going to see them die later on.  Perhaps it might bump a tree limb or trunk, creating wounds that attract insects. Are you prepared to pick through the soil being lifted and pull out all the roots?  Are you able to bring in more soil to fill gaps? Of course, you will then have to replant the entire area that you dug. Better think about this carefully. Of course, if the knotweed is in a field with nothing around it, then go for it!  
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Jerusalem Cherry
Is Christmas cherry the same as Jerusalem cherry?
No, Christmas cherry, or ornamental pepper, is Capsicum annuum, nothing more than a chile pepper plant. It has a heavier growth with lots of small, fiery peppers in bright colors—the peppers are so hot even handling them can cause a burning sensation. The leaves can also be colorful and the plant is in full fruit around the holidays, so Christmas cherry is generally sold as an ornamental. To keep the peppers going, mist the plant daily to spread pollen. If the fruits begin to dry up, cut it back hard to force new growth.

Jerusalem cherry is Solanum pseudocapsicum. It has bright, orange-red fruit that comes into color around Christmas. To keep this plant in fruit simply shake the plant to distribute the pollen. Normally treated as an annual, it can be kept longer by severe pruning. Like the Capsicum annuum, it likes bright light and moist, not wet, soil. The fruits of Jerusalem cherry are toxic so keep them away from small children and your pets.
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Lady’s Thumb
We have a weed in our garden that the local nursery told us was lady’s thumb and to apply Roundup©. We don’t want to use chemicals in our flower garden so is there another way of dealing with this weed?
Absolutely.  Lady’s thumb is Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum penslyvanicum).  It grows to about three feet with semi-hard stems that swell where the leaves are attached. As the plant matures, the bottom sheaths dry up and fall off. It’s an annual, reproducing by seeds, and there are loads of them. This plant can tolerate wet or compacted soil, shade, acidic soils, and poor soils. Increasing the pH of your soil, that is, making the soil less acidic, adding compost to improve soil structure, and using mulch will this weed. Hand pulling before it sets seeds is another way to control it. 
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Leaf Litter
We have always cleaned our yard each autumn so there will be no leaves or other material left on the ground during the winter. Recently, someone said we shouldn’t do this as it takes away food for the birds and kills butterflies.  So, are we supposed to leave the leaves or rake them up?
Leaving the leaves where they fall is good for the soil, birds, butterflies, and small animals. First, as leaves decompose they replenish the soil. Take a good look at the ground in the woodlands and notice the difference in that soil and your yard. Second, consider this another form of pest control: during winter months, birds and small animals forage in the leaves looking for insects, pupae, larvae, and small amphibians. Third, certain butterflies do overwinter as larvae in leaf litter.

However, you have to ask whether the fallen leaves from a healthy plant or one that was diseased? Diseased material that can ‘come alive’ when fungal spores germinate in the spring shouldn’t be left. The major problem is with fruit trees, though there are some diseases of other trees that also can be controlled with a cleanup. One more thing to consider is wind. If your yard is open to wind there are no leaves left by spring.  
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Lichens
While taking a walk across a field with my elderly neighbor, he referred to moss on the ground as British soldiers and pixie cups. Is he pulling my leg?
No, but it isn't moss; he just used the common names for a couple of lichens. Pixie cups are really pyxie cups (Cladonia pyxidata). They are a gray, scaly, goblet- shaped growth that grow to about a half inch in dry, sandy soil. There is another species, known as ladder lichen (Cladonia verticillata), that is very similar except that each goblet grows from the center of the one below it, making it taller than the pyxie cups, and they are also a little greener.
The British soldiers (Cladonia cristatella) are easily recognized by the red tips on small stems of a lumpy growth. The vegetation is gray if dry, and green if moist.

All of these species will grow in the sun, and on old wood as well. Take a magnifying glass out to the field and examine them. You will be fascinated by their growth habits. They make a wonderful addition to a child's Fairy Garden!
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Loostrife
I'm confused about loosestrife. I heard that it is an invasive, yet the white ones are sold in nurseries. Can you help me?
The invasive species are purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia punctata). The plants sold in nurseries belong to the genus Lysimachia: creeping Jenny (L. nummularia) is a sprawling ground creeper with yellow flowers and L. vulgaris is a white upright, but is somewhat invasive. Chinese loosestrife (L. clethroides) has spikes of tiny white flowers resembling Buddleia and is well behaved. This plant blooms in late summer and likes moist soil. You may also see hybrids of Lythrum that are supposed to be noninvasive; I tried two cultivars, 'The Beacon' and 'Lady Sackville' and neither made it through our Zone 6 winter.
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Manure Fertilizer
Why is manure considered better for the garden than chemical fertilizers? 
Because the addition of organic matter to soil will result in conversion of plant residues to humus.
Horses seem to have the most valuable manure as it is richer in nitrogen from the grains they eat. Horse and sheep manures are considered hot manures compared with the cold manure of cows or pigs. The difference is the content of urine; urine contains more nitrogen and potash and is valuable in converting crop residues into humus. Also, the softer (cow flops) the manure the less likelihood there is of burning plants. If manure has dried out and turned white, it has lost all nutrient value.

The N-P-K values for one ton of manure is: horse = 14-5-11, pig = 10-7-8, chickens = 20-16-9, cows = 12-3-9, and sheep and goats = 19-7-20. 

All manure needs to be composted before coming into contact with plants. If you are going to use fresh manure in your garden, till it into the soil at least one month to six weeks before planting.
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Master Gardener Program
Master Gardeners seem to know all the answers. What degree of education is needed to become one?
The truth be known, we don't know everything but we do know where to get the answers. As for degrees, there are doctors, lawyers, homemakers, secretaries, accountants, you name an occupation and there will be a Master Gardener included. The qualification to become one is a love of gardening and a desire to share what you have learned with others.

Trainees go through extensive basic training in garden related topics and undertake 50 hours of volunteer activities prior to earning the title Master Gardener. They continue to learn through advanced education programs that are given every year. We've earned the privilege of working with the best specialists in their fields. We volunteer, utilizing this knowledge, at various functions throughout our regions, plus, we maintain the gardening <hotline> and the Master Gardener Association web site.

Our goal is to advise and educate the public about the best ways of handling horticultural problems with the safest ecological methods available to protect our environment. To find more out the Master Gardener Association click here.
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Mayapple
We just bought a home surrounded by woods in the western part of the state. There is a plant growing in these woods that has a slightly pink, waxy flower that smells strange. I was told they are mandrakes. What can you tell me about them?
Called American mandrake, it’s mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) and it is in flower during May with white but sometimes a pink-tinged bloom. The leaves are large and look rather like an umbrella over the flower. Mayapple loves a well-drained woodsy soil where the falling leaves protect it during winter months. A yellowish apple will form on these plants but after that the plant dies back during the heat of summer. This is a perennial with creeping rootstock so it spreads, but slowly.

You are lucky to have these wild flowers; many of us purchase them for our woodland gardens. This isn’t generally seen in the wild in the eastern part of New England so someone may have placed them there.
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Milkweed
How do you control milkweed? We like to have it in an old pasture for the butterflies but it's invading the yard and gardens.
You do lots of mowing! Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) has roots that spread like wildfire. Also, those seed pods, used in WWII to fill life vests, pop open with a vengeance, shooting seeds into the air like a barrage of rockets. Once airborne, these little parachutes float for some distance before alighting. It isn't long before milkweed is everywhere. Constant mowing seems to be the best weapon as it will weaken the root systems forcing them to retreat to the old meadow.
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Moss
How do we get rid of the moss in our lawn?
Moss grows where other things won't, forming a soft mat of green that nobody appreciates in their lawn - and, sometimes, nowhere else either. There are reasons that this is happening, including compacted soil, acidic soil, soil with low fertility, shady location, or poor drainage. Chemical controls will only temporarily remove the moss; it will return until the contributing conditions are corrected.

First, have the soil tested and amend according to the recommendations you receive. Then, loosen soils that are compacted to a depth of at least 4 inches and add recommended lime and fertilizer or compost. This process will also break up the moss and improve oxygen levels in the soil. Improve drainage if the soil is moist by raising soil levels, adding sand to the soil, or installing drains. Increase the amount of light on the lawn by thinning out any trees that shade the area, which also allows for a better air circulation.

Be aware that maples and a few other trees have numerous surface roots that absorb all the nutrients in the area, thereby making it impossible for grass to grow but exacerbating conditions in which moss will thrive. If you cover these roots with soil, you could kill the tree so an alternative to grass may be needed, such as a low ground cover.

Finally, select a grass that suits your needs. There are blends available that will withstand rough playing by children and pets, grow well in shade, and even repel diseases and insects.
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Is it easy to establish a moss garden?
Yes…and they are beautiful. All you need is the right location and a supply of moss. This moss will have to come from your own property, taken from that of a friend (with permission), or be purchased from a supplier. As for location, shady areas on the north side of your home, beneath trees, or in rocky areas around water gardens will do fine as long as the soil is acidic. If you are going for a natural looking moss garden be sure to place those items of structural interest in first. This includes items such as old logs, stones, ferns, or other plants that tolerate the same conditions as moss. Moss will eventually establish on it's own but this takes time, so transplanting sheets or patches of moss to become established is the preferred method.

It's best to start with small areas and let the moss settle in; it's senseless to transplant large areas and not have it survive. Make sure the sheet of moss you chose makes good contact with the soil and keep it damp for at least the first year until it begins to spread. Three years ago, I moved some sheets of moss - two varieties - from an old stone wall on my property to the rocks around my water garden. It spread and now it looks like it has been growing there for ages. The only problem I encountered was wildlife turning the sheets over looking for insects. A quick watering of both rock and moss reestablishes the contact in no time.
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Moss Paint
I want to have flowerpots covered in moss. How is this done?
You do this by creating a 'moss paint' called slurry. Here's how: First, get some clean moss, diluted manure (there are drawbacks!), and buttermilk or yogurt. Process ta cup of clean moss with manure, not tightly packed, and two and a half cups of whatever liquid you wish to use in a blender. (Unless you have an old blender you don't intend to use for normal kitchen work, don't use the manure.) After processing this mixture, paint it on pots that have been soaked in water. Keep the pots moist at all times with a fine mist, depending on the temperature; misting once a day will do. Place the pots in a shady location and don't let them dry out at all if you want to keep the moss alive. Generally you will see some thin green coloration establishing in about two months.
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Mulch
We want to apply mulch around the house foundation but have been told it will attract termites.
Using wood chip mulch could cause a problem if your house sills are close to the ground. It's wise to keep wood mulches at least a couple of feet away. Some people opt for stone mulches around house foundations, which is fine as long as it doesn't reflect heat as this can be a problem with air conditioning in the summer and will really have a negative effect on plants during the winter.

What are the soil conditions around your foundation? If it doesn't drain well, the addition of organic mulch that is too deep only compounds the problem as it packs down. Three to four inches is all that is needed. Other than wood chips, types of mulches include shredded bark, straw, dried grass, chopped leaves, pine needles, coca bean, and buckwheat hulls.

Plastic is fine beneath stone pathways but since it doesn't allow water or air to get into the soil it is not good to use for planted areas. It is great in the veggie garden beneath tomatoes and such if there is an irrigation system installed! Newspapers can be used beneath mulch but if left unanchored they blow all over. Landscape fabric is good beneath stones, walkways, and other mulches because it is permeable.
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We are ready to order mulch but don’t know how much to get. Most is sold by cubic yards, but some by tons. Do you have any guidelines for buying mulch?
When they use the word ‘ton’ it seems like an excessive amount but it doesn’t cover that much. Yardage on the other hand appears just the opposite. A two cubic yard pile doesn’t look like it will go very far at all, however:
A cubic yard of soil, compost or mulch roughly does:
                             320 square feet at 1 inch in depth
                             160 square feet at 2 inches in dept
                             110 square feet at 3 inches in depth
                             80 square feet of 4 inches in depth
A cubic yard of soil weighs more than one ton (2000 lbs), while a cubic yard of sand or gravel will weigh in close to 3000 lbs.
If you wish to haul the mulch yourself, keep the weight in mind. A full size pickup truck will generally hold 2 to 3 cubic yards of mulch. 
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Mullein
There's a tall, light green, fuzzy spike growing in my flowerbed that has little yellow flowers at the top. I don't recall planting anything that looks like it, any ideas?
Yes, it is common mullein (Verbascum thapsus). It really is a weed but if they pop up in my garden I leave them alone. Mullein was once grown in Colonial cottage gardens. If you look around the stalk this fall you will probably see a rosette of fuzzy leaves. This plant is a biennial: the rosette will form the first year from dropped seeds; the stalk will spring up the second year, form flowers, and then produce seeds before dying.

These plants can grow quite tall. The upper stem will have smaller, pointed leaves whereas the base leaves are large. If we water our gardens a lot or if there is a lot of rain, this plant isn't as happy or likely to germinate; it prefers a dry, gravelly soil but I find it does well in pinebark mulch. If you want to get rid of it, just pull it up and let dry out.

Moth mullein (V. blattaria) is another type of mullein that is even prettier. It has dark irregularly lobed leaves, smaller leaves on the stalk, and the flowers are loosely formed, not clustered together like the common mullein. The leaves of moth mullein are not as fuzzy either.
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Multiflora Rose
How do I get rid of multiflora rose?  It’s very pretty but has become a pest in our backyard along the fence line with the neighbor.
The answer is yes…but you need persistence. Unfortunately, multiflora rosa has become an invasive. They grow to about 10 feet high and they make excellent nesting sites for birds. However, birds spread the seed by eating the red hips on the shrub all winter long.

Dig out what plants you can, getting as much root as possible, then cut the remaining stems at the soil line and continue to do this as long as new growth appears. You can also apply thick mulch over the cut stems to ‘starve’ the plants of sun and water. Start with heavy cardboard topped with heavy plastic, covered with a 3- to 4-inch layer, or more, of wood chips or bark mulch. Leave this mulch down for a couple of years at least.

Why is multiflora rose so underrated around here?  This shrub makes good cattle fences where I came from.
Multiflora rose is a fast growing shrub that has become invasive here in the northeast but especially in the south. Originally, it was promoted to farmers by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service for conservation. I have some growing along the edge of the woods and found that the mockingbirds love it for nesting. Multiflora will grow into a thick hedge coated with white flowers in the summer. It’s the small red hips that are relished by the wildlife as food throughout the winter. The plant is bound to show up wherever birds congregate. It also has a bad habit of having the canes root as they bend to the ground. Like Rosa rugosa, when the shrub starts to spread out, a little mowing takes care of any potential invasion.
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Mum and Sedum Floppers
Why have my mums and 'Autumn Joy' sedum flopped to the ground?
Mums will grow tall if not cut back early in the season. The trick is to pinch them back continuously from Memorial Day until the first of July and your mums should be nice and bushy. You can easily root the cuttings for more plants by popping them into some moist medium and putting them in a shady location. Fertilize only until the end of July. Some of us, me included, prefer to have tall mums for cut flowers in the fall as they last so long in a vase, but we have to use plant rings to keep them upright.

'Autumn Joy' sedum will grow tall and fall over from the weight of the flowers if the soil is rich and moist. We often can't do a thing about moisture during rainy fall weather, so again, use plant rings to contain them even tough they still may flop over the rings. However, I discovered a solution. Using two inexpensive tomato cages, I cut through the rings of the cages, bending the cut ends back into hooks - one cage had hooks bending downward and the other sideways. Spreading both cages open, I placed one on each side of the plant, connected the hooks, and pushed the feet into the soil. This made larger and taller cages to contain the floppy offender.
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Mushrooms
My yard was established three years ago when the land was cleared and we have mushrooms all over the place. Why? Are they edible?
What happened to the trees when the land was cleared? Are the mushrooms arranged in circles? Some mushrooms are the fruit of a fungus that feeds on dead or dying organic material; these are called saprophyte fungi. If a fungus were feeding on living material it would be called to as parasitic, and we all know what parasites are. The cycle develops when a spore germinates, producing a long thread (a mycelium) that is sent to the surface where a fruit develops. Fungus spores are always around but need ideal conditions to germinate.
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DO NOT EAT THEM. Without professional identification never consider any mushroom safe. Even with good identification books there are just too many "ifs" involved. The slightest "if it doesn't have or if it does have" can distinguish a poisonous mushroom from an edible one. If the mushrooms are bothering you, just rake them away.
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Native Plants
Recently, someone on a TV show recommended a couple of shrubs that have red leaves in the fall and could be used to replace winged euonymus which is invasive. The narrator said these bushes would also attract birds. Do you know what they are?
Most likely mentioned were highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa). The leaves of both shrubs turn red in the fall, both have berries for the birds, and they are easy to grow. Or, fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica) might have been mentioned. This shrub has brilliant red foliage in the fall. We need to rely more on our own native species not only to combat invasive plants when but in looking at water conservation.
Brooklyn Botanical Gardens has a website for alternative plants: www.bbg.org/nativealternatives  

Can you suggest some native plants, one a climber, to use around an old weather-warn barn? We would like something that looks nice in the fall to compliment the maples.
For your climber, how about Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)?  This is a gorgeous fall foliage vine with bright red glossy leaves that grows to around 30 feet or so. It is deciduous so it will lose leaves in winter. 
As for shrubs, try sumac (Rhus glabra), a deciduous shrub that turn vivid red in the fall, or staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) whichhas red fruit structures that stand upright from the outstretched stems. You should also consider blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) which are not only a treat for the birds but for you as well (if you pick to them soon enough).
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Neem
What is Neem?
Neem is an insecticide and fungicide that is derived from seeds of the Neem tree which grows in Africa and India. It is used as a repellent, a growth regulator, and an insect poison. Neem