Welcome to our Gardening Tips and Information Center. This is where you can find current information about a wide range of gardening topics and environmental issues. Information in this section will keep changing, so check back regularly...and Ask A Master Gardener if there is something you would like to find here that hasn't been included.

Yield of Vegetables Produced in a Home Gardens

VEGETABLE

AV CROP PER 100 FEET

APPROX PER PERSON FRESH

APPROX PER PERSON STORE, CAN, FREEZE

Asparagus Beans, snap bush Beans, snap pole Beans, lima bush Beets Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Celery Chard, Swiss Corn Cucumbers Eggplant Lettuce, head Lettuce, leaf Muskmelon (cantaloupe) Onions Parsley Parsnips Peas Peppers Potatoes, Irish Potatoes, sweet Pumpkins Radishes Spinach Squash, summer Squash, winter Tomatoes Turnip Watermelon

30 lb 120 lb 150 lb 25 lb 150 lb 100 lb 75 lb 150 lb 100 lb 100 lb 180 stalks 75 lb 10 doz 120 lb 100 lb 100 heads 50 lb 100 fruits 100 lb 30 lb 100 lb 20 lb 60 lb 100 lb 100 lb 100 lb 100 bunches 40-50 lb 150 lb 100 lb 100 lb 50-100 lb 40 fruits

10-15 plants 15-16 feet 5-6 feet 10-15 feet 5-10 feet 3-5 plants 2-5 plants 3-4 plants 5-10 feet 3-5 plants 10 stalks 3-5 plants 10-15 feet 1-2 hills 2-3 plants 10 feet 10 feet 3-5 hills 3-5 feet 1-3 feet 10 feet 15-20 feet 3-5 plants 50-100 feet 5-10 plants 1-2 hills 3-5 feet 5-10 feet 2-3 hills 1-3 hills 3-5 plants 5-10 feet 2-4 hills

10-15 plants 15-20 feet 8-10 feet 15-20 feet 10-20 feet 5-6 plants 5-8 plants 5-10 plants 10-15 feet 8-12 plants — 8-12 plants 30-50 feet 3-5 hills 2-3 plants — — — 30-50 feet 1-3 feet 10 feet 40-60 feet 3-5 plants — 10-20 plants 1-2 hills — 10-15 feet 2-3 hills 1-3 hills 5-10 plants 5-10 feet —

Protecting Your Health While Gardening By Reinhard Sidor, URI Master Gardener This is a brief guide of some of the actions gardeners can take to protect their health and safety when gardening. While gardening is known to be a beneficial exercise it is not without risks: there is the chance of physical trauma from tools, machinery, and gardening tasks; risks from hazardous materials such as dusts, molds, gasoline, pesticides and other gardening chemicals; and hearing loss from power equipment noise.  Tool handle length: The handle on many shovels, spades, pitch forks, rakes, hoes, etc. is too short and this creates back injury risks for the user. Short tool handles force the user to assume work postures that strain the lower back, potentially causing muscle strain or even herniation of discs. Older tools, especially spades and forks with a “D” handle and old hand-me-downs, tend to have short handles.    The longer the tool’s handle the more upright the body position and the less stress to the back. The handles of shovels and forks should be shoulder-height or longer. The total length of rakes should approach the height of the user. For the smaller person it is better to use a handle that is a bit too long. Even today, many of the handles on commercially available tools are too short. This is especially true of expensive tools from “designer” gardening shops and the cheap ones from discount stores. The best rule is: buy the tools that fit you, whatever the price. It should be noted that tools with good functional working ends can often be retrofitted with longer handles. Tool handle diameter: Leaf rakes and cultivating and weeding tools often come with handles with a diameter that is too small. Tools with handles of less than 1¼ inch in diameter require the user to exert more force in order to hold the tool. This injures the hand by causing muscle fatigue and blisters.  All of the the above-mentioned gardening tools should be equipped with handles that are at least 1¼ to 1 3/8 inch in diameter. For the small hand, make sure that the handle diameter fits comfortably. A diameter that is too large can also cause problems. Rubber pipe insulation or replacement bicycle handle bar grips can be used to retrofit older tools. For new tools, look for those with foam-covered handles. Hand tools and ergonomics: Hand tools, such as trowels and weeders, should allow the user’s wrist to be in a straight line relative to the forearm.  Using a hand tool with your wrist bent causes fatigue of muscles and tendons in the wrist and forearm. Trowels can be used more effectively if the user grasps the handle with the shovel part pointing down and pulls backwards through the soil rather than using in a scooping motion. Using trowels in this backhoe mode transfers the workload stress from the wrist and forearm to the stronger muscles of the upper arm and shoulders. Small gardening tools are now available in a variety of “ergonomic” designs.  Replacement of hand tools that cause discomfort should be considered if a more ergonomic version is found. Pruning shears are also now available for the smaller hand. Use of pruners fitted to the hand will result in less hand fatigue and more effective pruning. top of page Body position: Improper body position when gardening can cause serious injury to the back and the shoulders; bending over improperly is the cause of many back injuries. When doing tasks such a planting, weeding, cleaning up debris, etc. it is important to bend at the knees, keeping as much of a curve as possible in the lower back. This can be accomplished by squatting with the legs spaced somewhat apart; supporting the upper body with a hand on one of the bent knees; or having support from a tool or other object, such a tub bucket or trash can.  When carrying a load, it is best to carry it as close to the body as possible. Bending over is a learned practice. Toddlers never bend over…they get closer to the ground by squatting. It takes a conscious act to prevent bending over. Squatting or using one of the back support techniques will require discipline but will result in stronger legs and less back pain. Lifting objects should be done with the body as close to the object as possible, keeping the legs to either side of the object, lowering the upper body by bending the knees, and then grasping the object and lifting using leg muscles, not back muscles.  Lifting objects with the upper body in a forward position is a risky move. This typically occurs when doing tasks such as removing bags of fertilizer or groceries from the trunk of the car. These task are best accomplished by maneuvering the object as close as possible to the end of the trunk, working the load up on the trunk’s ledge (without ripping the bag), and then lifting. Sucking in the stomach muscles will give some support to the lower back during the lift.  Comfort zone for arms: Extreme reaching forwards, upwards, or sideways from the upper body can cause fatigue as well as muscle and/or tendon strain. Examples of improper reaching zones include: working with the arms extended to reach the other side of a four-foot planting bed; pruning above the shoulders for extended periods; and pulling objects with your body at right angles to the object.   Repositioning your body closer to the work, for example, working on a ladder, will eliminate or reduce stress on the upper body. Working on your knees: It is necessary to protect the knees when doing tasks such as planting, weeding, installing stone walkways, etc.  Foam pads are readily available for this purpose. It is best to have two pads so that as the work zone shifts the gardener can move the knees from pad to pad. Better yet is the use of knee pads, which are now available for under $10 in the big box stores. top of page Hearing protections: Almost all gasoline-powered gardening tools, including lawn mowers, weed whips, leaf blowers, rototillers, brush chippers, and chain saws, produce noise of an intensity that potentially causes noise-induced hearing loss to the device’s operator.  The use of industrial rated ear protectors, such as ear muffs and ear plugs, will reduce or eliminate the risk. Ear muffs are readily available but may not be comfortable if worn for more than a few minutes. Ear plugs are as, or more, protective than muffs, but if removed with soiled hands should not be reinserted without cleaning. Disposable plugs made of foam or fine fiberglass materials are available, but these too, if removed with soiled hands (typically) and reused during without washing can cause ear infections. Under-the-chin ear protectors are as effective as muffs or plugs but can be removed and reused without touching the ear plug portion of the device. These comfortable devices are available from industrial safety supply houses and in the safety section of the big box stores. Lung protection: Operations such a mowing a lawn, mulching leaves with a lawn mower, using leaf blowers or weed whips, and breaking apart and spreading compost piles allow for exposures to dust that can cause adverse responses or injuries to the respiratory system. For those with allergies, working in the garden can also cause discomfort because of pollen, soil molds, or other sources.  The use of industrial grade, disposable dust masks can reduce or eliminate discomforts or risks from garden-related lung hazards. These disposable masks have two straps, and on the mask or its package is printed “N-95 rated”. This rating assures that if the mask is properly fitted (for proper fit it is important that the mask’s bottom strap is placed on the neck and the top strap be placed on the back of the head) and worn correctly then 95% of fine dust particles in the respirable range will be filtered out. For coarser dust, the mask’s efficiency is 100%. Some models have exhalation valves which makes the mask more comfortable during long-term use. These masks are commonly available only in a size that fits the average adult male. People with smaller faces should look to industrial safety supply houses for masks for small or hard to fit faces; sizes for these situations are available. top of page Pestiside Use on Lawns Source: RI Department of Environmental Management Pests that may damage home lawns include weeds, insects, and diseases. Any product purchased to control one of these pests is considered a pesticide. Even "natural" or "organic" products sold to control pests in the lawn are considered pesticides. Pesticides can take several forms, including liquid, granular, or aerosol. Some are added to fertilizers for ease of application. The control of home lawn pests using pesticides should be done only after proper identification of the pest problem and after giving careful consideration to pesticide alternatives. Used improperly, pesticides may not accomplish the desired results, may damage your lawn, or may harm you or the environment. Therefore, before buying a pest control product for your lawn consider that a pesticide may not be needed at all, so consider the following: 1. A few weeds or insects will not harm the lawn. Perhaps you can hand pull weeds. 2. Some lawn diseases are only cosmetic and will not harm the lawn. These are usually weather related and most lawns are quick to recover as soon as the weather changes. 3. You can significantly reduce pest problems by proper lawn management. 4. For persistent insect problems consider reseeding using endophytic grasses which are naturally resistant to insects such as chinch bugs and billbugs. To ensure that the pest is properly identified, do some research and ask questions. Here are some resources that may help: 1. Numeroous books and websites are available. 2. The URI Master Gardener Program supports a Hotline to answer any general lawn and garden questions at 1-800-448-1011 (in Rhode Island only), Monday –Thursday, 9:00 a.m.–2:00 p.m. Or you can reach them at the Master GArdener Association website at www.urimga.org 3. The URI Plant Protection Clinic is available for the actuall identification of plant, insect, weed, and disease samples. Call the Master Gardener Hotline for information and instructions for handling and delivery of samples. There is a $10 fee. Things to consider in the selection of the best produc best suited to your needs: 1. Purchase of a liquid or a granular product depends on equipment you have available. Liquid products are sold as a ready-to-use mix or as a concentrate. The concentrate may be less costly but the ready-to-use are easier. 2. Pesticides mixed with fertilizer allow you to apply both at the same time. This is convenient but consider tha fact that you may not need to aply the pesticide to the entire lawn. 3. Always buy the least toxic pesticide that wilol accomplish the job. All pesticide lables must state the level of pesticide toxicity as either CAUTION, WARNING, OR DANGER. Caution is the least toxic; danger is the most toxic. 4. Do not purchase more product than you need because leftover product becomes a storage or disposal problem. top of page Always read the label first. It is a violation of Federal and State law to apply any pesticide not in accordance with the label. Pay particular attention to the following label items: 1. Ensure that the target (e.g., lawn) site and pest you are attempting to control are listed on the label. 2. NEVER apply more pesticide that is recommended by the label rate. 3. Look for instructions relating to application proximity to lakes, ponds, and streams. 4. Consider weather conditions and forecasts. Application just before, during, or after rain may not be desirable. 5. Watering in requirements must be followed to ensure effectiveness and safety. 6. Always follow label precautions during the application. These directions will relate to personal protection, buffers around streams and ponds, re-entry on the lawn after application, etc. Be sure to remove items such as hoses, toys, and pet dishes prior to application. Keep pets and people off the lawn during application. Avoid application to drives, walks, patios, bird baths, pools, furniture, etc. on the lawn. After the application is complete always sweep or blow off any granular material that may remain on paved surfaces. Unused liquid concentrates and granular products should be stored in a dry location out of reach of children and pets. Make sure containers are tightly sealed. Prevent liquids from freezing over the winter. Do not buy more product than you plan to use during one season. Empty liquid containers should be rinsed out THREE times with clear water prior to disposal with household trash. The rinse liquid should be used during the filling of the application equipment. Do not allow the rinse liquid to enter the sewer system or dispose of it elsewhere on your property. Bags of dry granular product should be thoroughly emptied prior to disposal. Excess product that cannot be used according to label instructions on your lawn should not be disposed of in household trach. This is now considered hazardous waste. Some towns will periodically hold hazardous waste collection days when households may dispose of unwanted pesticides and other hazardous materials. Check with your city or town for the availability of these types of disposal events, or call the Rhode Island Resource Recovery Corporation at 401-942-1430 for disposal dates (www.RIRRC.org). top of page Tilling Adapted from: Lee Reich, Tilling is One Chore You Might Be Able to Skip, Fine Gardening, November-December 2006 Tilling is a tradition but there are conflicting views as to the actual need for tilling. The practice has been challenged—only in the last 50 years—and it is now believed by many that doing nothing can be the best practice. Benefits attributed to tilling are soil aeration, killing weeds, and mixing of organics, fertilizer, and lime into the soil. Each of these points have been evaluated; here are some of the reasons for using alternatives to tilling. First, while it is true that soil needs air, a tiller isn't needed to add it. Compaction can be avoided by limiting traffic to designated area,s such as paths and stepping stones. Second, there is no benefit to burying organics, fertilizer, and lime deep in the soil since most plant feeder roots are in the surfact layers. Third, although weeds are killed by tilling their seeds, buried and lying dormant deep in the soil, are stirred up, giving them the light and air they need to germinate. The best way to manage weeds is using mulch and/or hoeing or hand pulling. There are additional benefits to leaving the soil undisturbed. Over time, undug soils build up a system of pores and channels that can move water for efficient use. Churning kills earthworms and generally disrupts the balance of soil flora and fauna. Undug soils are also better able to maintain humus which is a fraction of the soil that helps to improve plant nutrition, disease resistance, soil aeration, and soil-water holding capacity. Humus forms when plant materials decay. When layering these materials on the top of the soil they break down at a slower rate and more nutrients are, therefore, available for plants to use. Sometimes, however, tilling is the right thing to do. For example, it is a good way to get air into clayey or heavily compacted soil. In such cases, a one-time mixing in of an abundance of organic matter will be beneficial to the soil. One-time tilling is also necessary if a rapid change in soil acidity is needed...just till in the limesone or sulfur. For those who prefer tillage as a method of soil management, you can lessen some of the drawbacks by not always tilling to the same depth (this creates a hardened layer of soil), by redular addition of organic materials, and by tilling no more than absolutely necessary. top of page Deer Ticks Deer tick abundance in Rhode Island for spring and summer 2006 increased by 7.1 percent over 2005, making it the second highest year on record for ticks in the state, according to a University of Rhode Island entomologist. The 2006 abundance probably can be attributed primarily to the fact that Rhode Island experienced the wettest May, June, and July since 1982; tick numbers are tied closely to moisture levels during those months. Based on the results of the 2006 tick survey, it is estimated that more than 717,000 Rhode Island residents are now at risk for encountering a deer tick close to home. Twenty years ago, the state's residents were largely free from this risk. To combat the increasing health threat posed by deer ticks in the state, researchers are launching a new initiative to "drive tick-borne disease out of Rhode Island." The goal of the new  program is to prevent disease from happening. "Technology development, public health outreach, and public participation are going to be the key drivers in making Rhode Island one of the safest northeastern states when it comes to tick-transmitted disease," states Thomas Mather, director of the URI Center for Vector-Borne Disease. For more information visit the tick bite prevention website, www.tickencounter.org top of page Woodborers Source: Massachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach Project (http://www.massnrc.org/pests/) Wood boring insects have arrived to the United States though solid wood packing materials in shipments of foreign goods. Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), and Sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio) are three introduced woodboring insects currently affecting the United States. The Asian longhorned beetle Asian longhorned beetle was introduced to North America in solid wood packing material from China. It was first reported by a resident of Brooklyn, NY in 1996.  Since that time it has been found in Chicago (1998), New Jersey (2002), and Ontario, Canada (2003). The Asian longhorned beetle is a large (1-1 ½ inches long), shiny, black beetle with white splotches on its back. Its antennae have alternate black and white bands and are 1 to 2 ½ times the insect's body length. Look for damage caused by Asian longhorned beetle on hardwoods including maples, horse chestnut, willow, poplar, and elm. Exit holes created by the beetle are approximately ½ inch in diameter and have well-defined edges, resembling precisely drilled holes.  Maps of the current Asian longhorned beetle infestations can be found at http://www.uvm.edu/albeetle/infestation/index.html The Sirex woodwasp is a native of Europe that attacks pine trees. The adult wasp has a steel-blue, cylindrical body and is ½ to 1 ½ inches in length. Males have a patch of orange on their abdomen. The female wasp injects a toxic mucus and a fungus into the trees when she oviposits eggs. The mucus and fungus work together to kill the tree and provide a suitable environment for the developing wasp. The first detection of the Sirex woodwasp in the United State was in 2004 in Oswego County, New York; it has since been detected in an additional 24 counties in New York, two counties in Pennsylvania, and  in six locations in southern Ontario, Canada.  The emerald ash borer was first discovered in Michigan in June 2002. Since its initial discovery in Michigan, emerald ash borer has been found in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Ontario, Canada. The emerald ash borer is a golden green beetle with darker, metallic emerald green wing covers and is about ½ inch in length.  In the United State EAB has attacked white ash (Fraxinus americana), black ash (F.nigra), red ash (F. pennslyvanica), green ash (F. pennsylvanica var. subintegerrima) and several horticultural varieties of ash. Distinct S-shaped tunnels beneath the bark are formed from larval feeding.  Adults emerge in June to early July leaving D-shaped exit holes 3-4mm in diameter in the bark. In order to limit the human-mediated spread of emerald ash borer, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio are under a federal quarantine that prohibits movement of ash tree materials and hardwood firewood outside the quarantine area. Maryland has a state quarantine in place to prevent movement of materials that could harbor emerald ash borer. For a map of emerald ash borer locations look at http://www.emeraldashborer.info/files/TriState_EABpos.pdf For more information and photos of these introduced woodborers visit: Asian longhorned beetle http://massnrc.org/pests/pestFAQsheets/asianlonghorned.html Emerald Ash Borer http://massnrc.org/pests/pestFAQsheets/emeraldashborer.html Sirex Wood wasp http://massnrc.org/pests/pestFAQsheets/european%20woodwasp.htm For pest alerts and information on other emerging pests visit the project Massachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach Project website at http://www.massnrc.org/pests top of page "Sour"Mulch Source:: Missouri Environment and Garden, News for Missouri’s Gardens, Yards and Resources In years with above normal rainfall, it is fairly common for plant leaves and stems to be seriously injured by chemicals released from fermented mulch. Signs of damage often are seen as bleaching or silvering of foliage within a few hours after applying mulch and this reaction intensifies during hot weather. The damage only lasts 24 to 48 hours. Large plants will recover after the fermentation products have volatilized. Chemicals produced during fermentation include acetic acid (vinegar, tha primary acid produced), fatty acids, methanol, formaldehyde, ketones, and phenols. In significant amounts these chemicals give an unmistakable acrid odor to the material and cause severe injury to plants. The pH of mulch is a fairly good indicator of fermentation products. Any mulch with a pH lower than 3.5 or 4.0 should be used with caution. To avoid problems associated with sour mulch use a little common sense when mulching. If the mulch has an unpleasant, sour smell or feels hot to the touch it should not be used immediately upon delivery. If possible, the mulch should be spread out to allow potentially toxic compounds to volatilize for a day or two and then tested on a few plants before being spread on an entire bed. Also, if a few cell packs of tender annuals are placed on top of the mulch damage from acetic acid fumes often shows upas bleaching, silvering, or collapsing of foliage within a few hours on a warm sunny day. When planting a large bed of annuals or ground covers mulch is commonly applied before planting. Delaying mulching for a day or two after the mulch is spread will reduce the chances of damage from volatile compounds in the mulch. Watering may also leach out toxic compounds but it could make matters worse unless the mulch is spread out before watering. Also, watering after planting may leach toxic materials into the root zone. In situations where damage has already occurred it is best to wait a few days before replanting. Lime applied to the surface may reduce the problem somewhat by neutralizing some of the acetic acid. Hydrated lime should not be used. top of page Rosie's Tip #1: Insects from Firewood By Rosanne Sherry, URI Master Gardener Coordinator It’s that kind of year again. The fuel prices are high and it’s been nasty weather most of the winter, so folks are reverting back to burning wood in woodstoves or fireplaces to supplement heating. But there’s one big problem with wood burning....insects in the firewood. A number of insects commonly live in logs or cut wood during a part of their life cycles, usually in their immature stages. Some of these insects feed and/or construct nesting galleries just under the bark; some bore into the outer and softer sapwood while others prefer to feed in the inner and harder heartwood. Others may be present because they are either parasites or predators on other insects living in the wood. A few insects may be using natural cracks and openings or those made by other organisms as pro­tected places to live, to pass a particular life stage – such as pupation – or to hibernate for the winter. Whatever the reason, these insects may have become associated with the wood from the time it was part of a living tree until it was stacked as firewood. Firewood is often brought indoors and remains unburned for a long period of time. It soon reaches room temperature and the developmental rate of insects living inside is greatly accelerated. If left unburned for too long many of these insects complete their development and emerge from the wood as adults. Then they  usually fly to the nearest window. There may be one, two, several, or hundreds of insects depending on type. The most common insects emerging from firewood are various kinds of beetles. The most numerous are the long‑horned beetles whose name is derived from their antennae which often equal or exceed the length of their bodies. Many are brightly colored or have conspicuous body markings. Their larvae, known as round‑headed borers, produce round‑shaped tunnels and exit holes as they chew through the wood. Another common group is the metallic wood borers, also known as flat‑headed borers. Their bodies are somewhat flattened and have a metallic sheen or may be otherwise brightly colored. Their larvae produced ovoid to oblong tunnels and exit holes. The last common group of beetles are several species of bark beetles. Most are rather small – about 1/8 inch long – and dark in color. They construct elaborate egg‑laying chambers between bark and wood. The remaining beetles and their larvae that are found in firewood are either predators on other insects or are spending some portion of their life cycle there for reasons already mentioned. Other insects that are most likely to be encountered are tiny wasps that are parasites of wood‑boring insects or rather large and fierce‑looking horn-tails or woodwasps. Occasionally, some very small caterpillars that have hatched from eggs laid on the bark may be seen crawling about. They will only survive for a day or two before starving to death. Other kinds of insects can also be found in casual relationship with firewood but hardly bear mentioning here. Many questions are asked about carpenter ants and termites. It is possible to bring in carpenter ants inside hollow logs but fortunately they are usually noticed before the wood is brought in so this seldom seems to happen. Termites do not appear to be a problem in firewood that is cut and burned within a year. Incidentally, insects chewing inside of firewood can sometimes be heard and sawdust is often associated with their exit holes. Here are some common questions homeowners ask: Will firewood insects attack wood inside the house? For the most part, insects are only nuisance pests in the house. However, if the house has the correct conditions for an insect infestation, firewood could be the source of damaging in­sects. One example might be car­penter ants. If one brings in wood infested with carpenter ants and stores it in a basement or garage containing some wet structural wood that is start­ing to decay, carpenter ants might move into it as the logs dry out and establish a nest. This is the exception rather than the rule. Should I spray the logs to avoid insect pests? Do not spray fire­wood for any reason. Insect pests can be reduced by proper cutting and storage. What insects attack firewood (or any type of wood)? There are three main groups of insects that can damage wood. They are bark beetles, ambrosia beetles, and wood borers. The bark beetles burrow bet­ween bark and sapwood; ambrosia beetles bore through bark and into sapwood and/or heartwood; and wood borers can be found either bet­ween wood and bark or in heartwood or sapwood. When are insects active? Most insect activity occurs during the growing season, from April to October. During this time adult beetles are actively looking for favorable woods on which to lay their eggs. From November to March insects hibernate and few, if any, adults are present.Bark beetles and ambrosia beetles are active during the entire growing season and may have five or more generations depending on the climate. With the wood borers, activities are more res­tricted, often to a few weeks of adult activity. In order to determine the periods of activity, you will have to know what types of wood you will be cutting, then learn the activity cycles if the various insect pests. What can I do to avoid large numbers of insects? Cutting firewood at the right time of year (during the dormant season) will help avoid some pests. Pile the logs as soon as possible after they are cut, either off the ground or under cover, so that the inner bark dries rapidly and thoroughly before the beetles begin to fly in spring. If logs are cut during the growing season, remove them from the forest as soon as possible. Even a few days exposure when insects are active may be enough time for an infestation to begin. Only bring indoors a few logs at a time and burn them right a way. Do not store the logs in the house or basement. How should I store firewood? Firewood should be stored out­doors, under cover (to keep it dry) and near the house. Insects are kept outside this way, and the dirt problem is reduced. Storage places might be a woodshed, unheated garage or utility building, or under a sheet of plastic or sheet‑metal roofing. Be certain to keep an air space between the wood and any covering. If wood is dried quickly, few insects are likely to survive. The greater the surface area of wood exposed to air, the more rapid the drying. Stacking wood in loose piles raised off the ground as well as splitting or sawing will accelerate drying. This is es­pecially needed with logs greater than eight inches in diameter or longer than four feet. Firewood placed in an open area will dry rapidly and deterioration will be prevented. Put a cover over the top tier of wood – clear plastic sheeting can be used. Temperatures under the plas­tic covering will rise higher than outside, warming the wood and eva­porating any contained moisture. Water vapor either escapes or is con­densed on the plastic, making some arrangement for ventilation necessary. top of page Rosie's Tip #2: Wood Ashes for Gardens By Rosanne Sherry, URI Master Gardener Coordinator It’s been one of those kinds of winters. Cold, snowy, wet, windy, and sky high fuel prices. While some homeowners are stuck with oil heat others still have the old wood stove from the last energy crunch…or a fireplace. Stacking wood for winter is a new pastime for winter weekends. With wood and not oil being a renewable energy source it does make sense to heat and even cook with it. But what the heck do you do with all the ashes?????? Effect on Soil Conditions: The most immediate effect of wood ash on soil conditions is the reduction in soil acidity. This is desirable as long as rates of ash application stop short of increasing soil pH above 7.0. Wood ashes are a concentrate of the original product and contain the amount of minerals and heavy metals that were originally in the wood before burning. A good hardwood ash may contain 6% potash, 2% phosphoric acid, and have a neutralizing effect on the soil that is about one-half  that of ground limestone. Wood ashes raise the alkalinity, or pH, of the soil in much the same way ground limestone does. While most Rhode Island soils need periodic applications of lime to "sweeten" them, the continued use or over­use of wood ashes tends to over-compensate for low pH values. Many wood stove owners dump the ashes on one or two small gardens with the thought that if a little is good, a lot is great. The result is that the soil pH is great­Iy raised, above the optimum range of 6.0 to 7.0. The increase in pH limits the availability of vital soil nutrients such as phosphorus, iron, and magnesium, and can affect plant growth as adversely as a pH that is too low. Soil values in RI have recorded pH values close to 9.0 in samples where wood ashes have been heavi­ly applied. Toxicity and Other Soil-related Problems: In the past, special caution was indicated in the use of ash from rolled newspapers, including color comics and magazines. They produced ash that contained cadmium in amounts from 7 to 25 times larger than wood ash. This type of ash should never be used on vegetable gardens. However, most printed materials now are on soy-based inks and are already printed on recycled paper. Check if you are not sure. If you are cleaning out the attic or basement and come across materials from the 1970s or earlier send them to the recycling bin and not your wood stove or fireplace. Common sense dictates that the ashes should be left in a metal container until they are cold in order to prevent accidental fires. But where do you put the ashes from three or four cords of firewood each year? A com­mon practice has been to spread them in vegetable and flower gardens or in compost piles in the belief that they will improve the soil. There is, however, increasing evidence that soil‑related problems are associated with the use of wood ashes. Continued applications of wood ashes on vegetable gardens at rates per year in excess of that indicated tend to build toxicity levels in the soil over a period of years. Minerals leach or wash out of ash very easily. Thus, ashes disposed of in piles where water from the pile would drain into a well can easily contaminate the well permanently. The properties of wood ash change with the species of wood used and the type of ap­paratus in which the wood is burned. Nevert­heless it is important to understand some general properties of ash. It will contain some cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc. Each of these heavy metals could be toxic to plant life or to an animal (perhaps per­son) consuming the plant material. This tox­icity depends on how much heavy metal is available in the soil and how much of these metals are absorbed by a particular plant. All of this varies with growth conditions that regulate crop yield and quality. Lettuce plants, which normally take up more of these elements than other plants, are often used as a good indicator species. Ash Yield from Wood: When wood is burned, between 0.2 and 1.0 percent of the combusted wood fuel becomes ash. If a cord of dry wood weighs about 4000 pounds, then the amount of ash produced will vary from 8 pounds to 40 pounds, depending on com­bustion efficiency. Twenty pounds of ash per cord of wood is probably a pretty good average. On a volume basis, this amounts to about 5 gallons (one 5 gallon pail will hold about 20 pounds of ash). In any given season, the safe rate of wood ash application to lawns or gardens should be about a full 5 gallon pail or 20 pounds per 1000 square feet. This rate of applica­tion is considered appropriate for repeat treatments year after year. Ash in this amount would raise soil pH equal to that from about 6 pounds of ground limestone per 1000 square feet, and the heavy metal ac­cumulation would be insignificant. For a one time application (not to be repeated in the same area for several years), wood ash can be applied safely at a rate of 100 pounds per 1000 square feet (five 5 gallon pails full per 1000 square feet). Such an application should be mixed well with the garden soil. For many Rhode Island soils, this amount of ash will raise the pH close to one unit. Where wood ash is applied at high rates or where ash is used on the same area for a period of years, heavy metal accumulation may, in time, reach undesirable levels. Then, it would be difficult to get rid of these accumulations. Cadmium, a heavy metal, is known to be toxic to animals. Even though wood ash has little cadmium, care should be taken not to add large amounts of wood ash to soils where vegetables will be grown. The most immediate effect of wood ash on soil conditions is the reduction in soil acidity. This is desirable as long as rates of ash application stop short of increasing soil pH above 7.0. When more ash is produced than can be disposed of it may be used in composting. Because ingredients of ash are generally water soluble they leach from piles left ex­posed to the weather. This means that storage outside is not practical, especially near surface water sources or well heads. So, use what you can according to these rates, monitor your soil pH over the years, and any excess ash should be sent to the landfill. top of page Rosie's Tip #3: Late Winter Gardening By Rosanne Sherry, URI Master Gardener Coordinator Gardeners are particularly known to "squirm like a worm" waiting for spring. But, before it arrives a gardener can be doing many projects to bring the promise of spring to life. Gardening indoors in February centers around seed-starting or house plant renovation/rejuvenation; seeds of celery, beets, petunias, impatiens, wax begonias, tuberous begonias, seed geraniums, browallia, verbena, and lobelia can be started in flats or pots. Seven to nine weeks of indoor pampering is needed before setting out in late April. Keep seedlings evenly moist and in direct sun or give them 14 to 16 hours under fluorescent lights. House Plants: The house plant collection may be looking a bit bedraggled. That comes from the lack of light and hot, dry air in the house. Be sure to put as many plants as possible in the sunniest windows for the next two months. If they must be near a radiator keep them watered at least once a week. Raising the humidity around the plants is the most beneficial thing you can do for them. Misting with room temperature water helps in a pinch. Continual humidity is really needed. Shallow pans or saucers of pebbles covered with water nearby or directly under the pots will do the trick. A room humidifier also works well. Ever notice that plants in the bathroom, kitchen, or laundry room are doing better than the rest? Humidity is the secret. Proper watering of house plants seems to be one of the mysteries of life – everyone underwaters or overwa­ters. One thing I do – which has nothing to do with when and how much to water – is to soak plants in slightly tepid water – don't use hot water. The soil, which is usually made with peat moss, absorbs water faster if it is warm. Warm water also seems to keep the soil wetter longer. For in‑between waterings I distill water. Many municipal water systems put chemicals in the water to make it safe to drink. However, the chemicals can kill plants if they build up in the soil, especially the salts. Distilling the water by letting it sit overnight in an open container or  boiling it and then cooling it to room temperature can definitely make a difference because this gives the chlorine and fluoride time to evaporate. How often plants should be watered has no simple answer since each plant is different due to its cultural needs, air temperature near the roots, and type of soil. [My secret (don't tell anyone) is to take every plant to the kitchen sink every month.] Many water meters have come out on the market, some are reliable, some not. Of course, your finger is the most reliable water meter. Into the Garden: If the snow begins to disappear and a nice day comes along, start pruning. Repairing storm damage and encouraging better bloom are the reasons to prune in late winter. Storm damage should be taken care of anyway, but pruning for shape or better flowering will depend on what plants you have. Late winter is the right time to prune fruit trees whose weak crotches, lateral or vertical shoots, or cankers may cause problems later when spring arrives. Ornamental flowering shrubs can be confusing and downright disastrous if the wrong plant is pruned at the wrong time. One basic rule of thumb is to prune deciduous shrubs that flower after June, in late winter. These shrubs set flower buds on the new or current year's growth. Pruning at this time will encourage fuller shrubs with more blossoms. These include rose of sharon, climbing roses, and peegee hydrangeas. The other rule is that early spring bloomers should definitely not be pruned now. These include  broad‑leaved evergreens (azaleas, rhododendrons, and Japanese andromeda), lilacs, big‑leaved hydrangeas, forsythia, flowering cherries, and honeysuckle vines. Flower buds have already been set and pruning will ruin the show. Yet, if any show signs of weak growth, unsightly suckers, or erratic shaping, they can be carefully and sparingly pruned at this time. Grape vines should be pruned back to three or four buds because the low temperatures of late winter reduce the flow of sap from the cuts. top of page